<?xml version="1.0"?>
<feed xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" xml:lang="nb">
	<id>http://nanowiki.no/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Magnugje</id>
	<title>NanoWiki - Brukerbidrag [nb]</title>
	<link rel="self" type="application/atom+xml" href="http://nanowiki.no/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Magnugje"/>
	<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/wiki/Spesial:Bidrag/Magnugje"/>
	<updated>2026-06-16T15:30:20Z</updated>
	<subtitle>Brukerbidrag</subtitle>
	<generator>MediaWiki 1.44.2</generator>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4638</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4638"/>
		<updated>2010-09-28T20:41:37Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Thor Christian Hobæk, Johannes Reinertsen og Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (60 %), midtsemestere (20 % og 20 %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: 09.12.2010 15:00-18:00&lt;br /&gt;
*Midtsemesterdatoer: 01.10.2010 12:15-13:30 og 05.11.2010 12:15-13:30&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: 8/12&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted:  Ved R1&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: 15:00 mandag etter øvingstime&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://org.ntnu.no/bonanza/h04/fysikk2/forelesn/forelesning1-18.pdf Forelesningsnotater av Arne Brataas]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://aashammer.net/public_files/Diffraksjon_fra_enkeltspalt.pdf Notat: Diffraksjon fra Enkeltspalt]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4637</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4637"/>
		<updated>2010-09-28T20:27:46Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Thor Christian Hobæk, Johannes Reinertsen og Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (60 %), midtsemestere (20 % og 20 %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: 09.12.2010 15:00-18:00&lt;br /&gt;
*Midtsemesterdatoer: 01.10.2010 12:15-13:30 og 05.11.2010 12:15-13:30&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: 8/12&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted:  Ved R1&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: 15:00 mandag etter øvingstime&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://org.ntnu.no/bonanza/h04/fysikk2/forelesn/forelesning1-18.pdf Forelesningsnotater av Arne Brataas]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4636</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4636"/>
		<updated>2010-09-17T14:47:52Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Thor Christian Hobæk, Johannes Reinertsen og Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (60 %), midtsemestere (20 % og 20 %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: 09.12.2010 15:00-18:00&lt;br /&gt;
*Midtsemesterdatoer: 01.10.2010 12:15-13:30 og 05.11.2010 12:15-13:30&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: 8/12&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted:  Ved R1&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: 15:00 mandag etter øvingstime&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://org.ntnu.no/bonanza/h04/fysikk2/forelesn/forelesning1-18.pdf Forelesningsnotater av Arne Brataas]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4635</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4635"/>
		<updated>2010-09-17T14:47:22Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Thor Christian Hobæk, Johannes Reinertsen og Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (60 %), midtsemestere (20 % og 20 %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: 09.12.2010 15:00-18:00&lt;br /&gt;
*Midtsemesterdatoer: 01.10.2010 12:15-13:30 og 05.11.2010 12:15-13:30&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: 8/12&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted:  Ved R1&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: 15:00 mandag etter øvingstime&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Diffraksjon fra enkeltspalt ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vi ser på en monokromatisk, koherent lys som skinner gjennom en spalt med bredde $a$. For å finne intensiteten på den andre siden av spalten, legger vi sammen komponentbølger fra $N+1$ bølgekilder som befinner seg jevnt fordelt på $y$-aksen, mellom $y=-\frac{a}{2}$ og $y=\frac{a}{2}$. Vi får da et ututtrykk for det totale utvinget $u(r,\theta,t)$ i et punkt i avstand $r$ fra origo, med vinkel $\theta$ til $x$-aksen ved tida $t$. Avstanden mellom hver bølgekilde blir da $\frac{a}{N}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Faseforskjellen mellom to komponentbølger, sett fra et sted langt ute på $x$-aksen, som kommer fra to bølgekilder med avstand $\frac{a}{N}$ imellom, kaller vi $\phi$. Denne faseforskjellen oppstår som reslutat av forskjellig veilengde $\Delta r$ for de to komponentbølgene. Med bølgetall $k$ får vi følgende uttrukk for $\phi$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
  \label{phi}&lt;br /&gt;
  \phi(\theta)	&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; k \Delta r \nonumber \\&lt;br /&gt;
		&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{ka}{N}\sin(\theta)&lt;br /&gt;
\end{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Når vi legger sammen de $N+1$ komponentbølgene får vi  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
  \label{sum}&lt;br /&gt;
  u(r,\theta,t)	&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; A \exp{i(kr - \omega t - \frac{N}{2} \phi) + A \exp{i(kr - \omega t - (\frac{N}{2}-1) \phi)} \nonumber \\ &amp;amp;&amp;amp; + A \exp{i(kr - \omega t - (\frac{N}{2}-2) \phi) + ... + A \exp{i(kr - \omega t) \nonumber \\ &amp;amp;&amp;amp; + ... + A \exp{i(kr - \omega t + (\frac{N}{2}-1) \phi) + A \exp{i(kr - \omega t + (\frac{N}{2}) \phi) \nonumber \\&lt;br /&gt;
		&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; A \sum_{n=-N/2}^{n=N/2} \exp{i(kr - \omega t + n \phi)}.&lt;br /&gt;
\end{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I ligning \ref{sum} er $A$ amplituden til hver komponentbølge. Summen av amplitudene til alle komponentbølgene blir $A_{tot} = A N$ og vi kan skrive $A = \frac{A_{tot}}{N}$. Setter vi denne omskrivingen av $A$ og ligning \ref{phi} inn ligning i \ref{sum} får vi følgende.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
  \label{sum2}&lt;br /&gt;
  u(r,\theta,t)	&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{A_{tot}}{N} \sum_{n=-N/2}^{n=N/2} \exp{i(kr - \omega t + n \phi)}&lt;br /&gt;
\end{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Om vi nå ser på grensa ${\lim }\limits_{n \to \infty }$ av ligning \ref{sum2}, går summen over til en integral og vi får&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
  \label{sumint}&lt;br /&gt;
  u(r,\theta,t)	&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{A_{tot}}{N} \int_{n=-N/2}^{n=N/2}\exp{i(kr - \omega t + n \phi)}  dn.&lt;br /&gt;
\end{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Så setter vi inn for $\phi$ i ligning \ref{sumint} i henhold til ligning \ref{phi} blir utsvinget&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
  \label{sumint}&lt;br /&gt;
  u(r,\theta,t)	&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{A_{tot}}{N} \int_{n=-N/2}^{n=N/2}\exp{i(kr - \omega t + n \frac{ka}{N}\sin(\theta))} dn.&lt;br /&gt;
\end{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Posisjonen til en bølgekilde på $y$-aksen er gitt ved $y=\frac{a}{N}n$. Da kan vi gjøre et variabelskifte i integralet vårt.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{eqnarray*}&lt;br /&gt;
 \label{var}&lt;br /&gt;
  n &amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{N}{a}y \\&lt;br /&gt;
  dn &amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{N}{a} dy&lt;br /&gt;
\end{eqnarray*}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vi kan nå evaluere integralet i ligning \ref{sumint}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
  \label{sumint}&lt;br /&gt;
  u(r,\theta,t)	&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{A_{tot}}{N} \int_{y=-a/2}^{y=a/2}\exp{i(kr - \omega t + \frac{N}{a}y \frac{ka}{N}\sin(\theta))} \frac{N}{a} dy \nonumber \\&lt;br /&gt;
		&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{A_{tot}}{a} \int_{y=-a/2}^{y=a/2}\exp{i(kr - \omega t + y k \sin(\theta))} dy \nonumber \\&lt;br /&gt;
		&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{A_{tot}}{a} \exp{i(kr - \omega t)} \int_{y=-a/2}^{y=a/2} \exp{i(y k \sin(\theta))} dy \nonumber \\&lt;br /&gt;
		&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{A_{tot}}{a} \exp{i(kr - \omega t)} \frac{1}{k\sin(\theta)} [\exp{i(y k \sin(\theta))} ]_{y=-a/2}^{y=a/2} \nonumber \\&lt;br /&gt;
		&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{A_{tot}}{ak\sin(\theta)} \exp{i(kr - \omega t)} [\exp{i(\frac{ak}{2} \sin(\theta))} - \exp{i(-\frac{ak}{2} \sin(\theta))}]\nonumber \\&lt;br /&gt;
		&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; A_{tot} \exp{i(kr - \omega t)} \frac{\sin(\frac{ak}{2} \sin(\theta))}{\frac{ak}{2i}\sin(\theta)}\nonumber&lt;br /&gt;
\end{eqnarray}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I den siste omskrivinga har vi brukt definisjonen av $\sin()$-funkjsonen fra Rottmann s. 85. Vi definerer nå $\alpha \equiv \frac{ka}{2}\sin(\theta)$ og bruker at intensiteten er proporsjonal med absoluttverdien av utsvinget i andre og får til slutt&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{eqnarray*}&lt;br /&gt;
 \frac{I(r,\theta)}{I(r,0)	&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{|u(r,\theta,t)|^2}{|u(r,0,t)|^2} \nonumber \\&lt;br /&gt;
				&amp;amp;=&amp;amp; \frac{\sin^2(\alpha)}{\alpha^2}}.\nonumber&lt;br /&gt;
\end{eqnarray*}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://org.ntnu.no/bonanza/h04/fysikk2/forelesn/forelesning1-18.pdf Forelesningsnotater av Arne Brataas]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4624</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4624"/>
		<updated>2010-09-10T14:20:23Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Thor Christian Hobæk, Johannes Reinertsen og Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (60 %), midtsemestere (20 % og 20 %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: 09.12.2010 15:00-18:00&lt;br /&gt;
*Midtsemesterdatoer: 01.10.2010 12:15-13:30 og 05.11.2010 12:15-13:30&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2010&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: 8/12&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted:  Ved R1&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: 15:00 mandag etter øvingstime&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://org.ntnu.no/bonanza/h04/fysikk2/forelesn/forelesning1-18.pdf Forelesningsnotater av Arne Brataas]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4483</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4483"/>
		<updated>2010-06-03T09:05:00Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Svein T. Seljebotn, Runar Sandnes og Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (60 %), midtsemestere (20 % og 20 %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: 08.12.2009 09:00-12:00&lt;br /&gt;
*Midtsemesterdatoer: 23.09.2009 10:15-11:15 og 04.11.2009 10:15-11:15&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: 8/12&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted:  Ved R1&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: 15:00 mandag etter øvingstime&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://org.ntnu.no/bonanza/h04/fysikk2/forelesn/forelesning1-18.pdf Forelesningsnotater av Arne Brataas]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4149</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4149"/>
		<updated>2009-08-13T11:56:55Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Svein T. Seljebotn, Runar Sandnes og Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (60 %), midtsemestere (20 % og 20 %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: 08.12.2009 09:00-12:00&lt;br /&gt;
*Midtsemesterdatoer: 23.09.2009 10:15-11:15 og 04.11.2009 10:15-11:15&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: 8/12&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted:  Ved R1&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: 15:00 mandag etter øvingstime&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4148</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4148"/>
		<updated>2009-08-13T11:53:50Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Svein T. Seljebotn, Runar Sandnes og Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (60 %), midtsemestere (20 % og 20 %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: 08.12.2009 09:00-12:00&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: 8/12&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted:  Ved R1&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: 15:00 mandag etter øvingstime&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4147</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4147"/>
		<updated>2009-08-11T21:00:14Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Svein T. Seljebotn, Runar Sandnes og Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (?? %), midtsemester (?? %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: ???&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: ??/??&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted: ???&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: ???&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4122</id>
		<title>TFY4170 - Fysikk 2</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=TFY4170_-_Fysikk_2&amp;diff=4122"/>
		<updated>2009-05-27T10:33:11Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Fakta høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|*Foreleser: Jon Otto Fossum&lt;br /&gt;
*Stud-ass: Magnus Aashammer Gjennestad&lt;br /&gt;
*Vurderingsform: Skriftlig eksamen (?? %), midtsemester (?? %)&lt;br /&gt;
*Eksamensdato: ???&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Infobox&lt;br /&gt;
|Øvingsopplegg høst 2009&lt;br /&gt;
|* Antall godkjente: ??/??&lt;br /&gt;
* Innleveringssted: ???&lt;br /&gt;
* Frist: ???&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Læringsmål ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Emnet er et videregående kurs i fysikk, som skal gi studentene innsikt i bølgelære og kvantemekanikk.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Eksterne linker ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;!--        Byttt ut koden i lenkene og forandr til riktig semester i timeplanlinken        --&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studier/emner?emnekode=TFY4170 NTNUs fagbeskrivelse]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.ntnu.no/studieinformasjon/timeplan/h09/?emnekode=TFY4170-1 Timeplan Høst09]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Obligatoriske emner]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag 3. semester]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Fag]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Transmission_Electron_Microscopy&amp;diff=4121</id>
		<title>Transmission Electron Microscopy</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Transmission_Electron_Microscopy&amp;diff=4121"/>
		<updated>2009-05-27T06:53:53Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Oppsett */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Dette er et av to typer elektronmikroskop. Med en TEM får man god oppløsning, omtrent ned på atomært nivå. Denne saken sender elektroner ned gjennom et rør som innehar en del elektromagnetiske linser som får alt til å bli bra. Det er flere forskjellige ting man kan få ut av og gjøre med en TEM og noen forskjellige saker står derfor under. Den viktikste egenskapen til en TEM er at den kombinerer informasjon fra både det virkelige rom (real space) og det resiproke rom (reciprocal space).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Oppsett ==&lt;br /&gt;
Kilden er en elektronkanon med en svært høy spenning (100-400kV). Elektronkanonen kan være av forskjellige typer (filamenter eller &amp;quot;tip&amp;quot;er), men det mest vanlige materialet er Wolfram (Tungsten). Elektronene blir så akselrert av en anode holdt ved jord. Strålen er karakteristert av den effektive størrelsen, vinkelen, elektronenergien og spredningen av elektronenergier. En liten effektiv størrelse forbedrer strålens koherens. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;quot;Condenser&amp;quot; aperturen er elektromagnetiske linser som fokuserer elektronstrålen. De har samme funksjon som condenser aperturen i [[optiske mikropskop]]. Forskjellen er at man her kan variere fokal lengden, ved å variere strømmen som går i linsene. Elektronene vil følge en helisk bane pga det elektromagnetsike feltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Prøvematerialet kan både roteres og vippes. Diameteren på prøven må være under 3mm, og tykkelsen må være under 0.1 &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\mu m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, for å få elastisk spredning (scattering).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bildet blir laget av en &amp;quot;flourescent&amp;quot; skjerm som konverterer høy-energi-elektronbildet til et bildet vi kan se, eller ved et CCD-kamera.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Oppløsning ==&lt;br /&gt;
Ved 100kV er oppløsningen ca. 0.2nm. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
De &amp;quot;vanlige&amp;quot; ligningen for depth of field and focus fra optisk mikroskopi, kan ikke lenger brukes med sikkerhet, nå som linsene ikke lenger kan defineres som &amp;quot;tynne&amp;quot; linser. Man kan likevel finne approksimerte verdier. Depht of field blir dermed 20-200nm (noe som avgrenser tykkelsen til en prøve enda mer), mens depth of focus blir flere meter!&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Begrensninger på oppløsningen er gitt ved Rayleighs kriterium som for [[optisk mikroskopi]]. Man kan altså få høyere oppløsning ved høyere spenning, men en spenning opp  mot 1MV vil som regel skade prøven. Man får analogt med optisk mikroskopi også sfæriske og kromatiske avik (spherical and cromatic aberrations). Sfæriske avik kommer fra at stråler i forskjellig avstand fra den optiske aksen (forskjellig vinkel) vil fokuseres ved forskjellige fokal punkt. Der en stråle lengre unna aksen vil fokuseres på et punkt nærmere linsen. Kromatiske avik kommer fra at stråler med forskjellig energi vil fokuserers ved forskjellige fokalpunkt. En stråle med høyere energi vil fokuseres på et punkt nærmere linsen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Astigmatisme kommer fra manglende aksial symmetri ved objektiv linsene, noe som også fører til en usikkerhet i fokalpunktet. Dette kan som regel korrigeres ved magnetiske felt. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Kontrast ==&lt;br /&gt;
*Mass-thickness contrast: Sannsynligheten for at et elektron blir spredd elastisk avhenger av spredningsfaktoren (atomic scattering factor), som øker med atom nummeret og det totale antall atomer. Spredningen er altså avhengig av prøvens tykkelse og tetthet, noe som gir kontrast i bildet. Amorfe og biologiske prøver vil dominerers at mass-thickness contrast.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Diffraction contrast: Denne typen kontrast kommer fra avik i enten den eksakte betingelsen fra Braggs lov eller avik i krystallstrukturen. Det er altså både avik i det virkelige rom og i det resiproke rom som fører til kontrast. I krystallinske materialer er dette den dominate kontrasten.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Phase contrast: I TEM kan man velge hvilke ståler man vil se på (en spredd stråle, eller den direkte strålen). For å få phase contrast må man sette aperturen slik at man velger flere stråler samtidig. Det vil dermed oppstå et interferensmønster ut i fra disse strålene pga en veiforskjell. Dette interferensmønsteret gir kontrast. Ved phase-contrast vil oppløsningen kunne bli mye bedre enn ved mass-thickness eller diffraction, helt ned til 0.07nm.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Teknikker ==&lt;br /&gt;
I TEM bruker man objektivaperturen til å bestemme hvilke(n) stråle(r) man vil se på. Dette fører til mange forskjellige teknikker og kontraster.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Bright-field - BF ===&lt;br /&gt;
Her brukes den direkte elektronstrålen som har gått rett gjennom prøven. Bakgrunnen blir dermed lys, sånn som i optisk mikroskopi. Denne teknikken bruker mass-thickness contrast. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Dark-field DF ===&lt;br /&gt;
Her brukes en spredd stråle, og analogt med optisk mikroskopi får man svart bakgrunn og bedre kontrast enn ved bright field. Denne teknikken bruker diffraction contrast. Dersom &amp;quot;incident beam&amp;quot; er rett og man velger en spredd stråle får man det man kaller dirty DF, eller lav-oppløsnings DF. Dersom man heller tilter strålen og velger strålen langs den opprinnelige optiske aksen får man høy-oppløsnings DF.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== High Resolution - HREM ===&lt;br /&gt;
Bruker en kombinasjon av DF og BF, altså den velger flere stråler, og bruker phase contrast. Bildet man får er i meget høy oppløsning, men kan være vanskelig å tolke pga mange interferensfenomener.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Høy oppløsning. HØY!&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy - EELS ===&lt;br /&gt;
Hvis man fjerner den vanlige detektoren i en TEM, og i stedet lar elektronene passere igjennom et magnetisk prisme slik at de blir avbøyd på grunn av [[Lorentz-kraften]], vil man kunne filtrere elektronene etter energi. Dette fordi elektroner med høy energi, og dermed høy hastighet, vil kreve en lengre distanse til å bli avbøyd 90 grader enn elektroner som går saktere. Konsekvensen blir dermed at man får skilt ut elektronene i rommet basert på deres energi, på samme måte som man kan spre lys til et spekter vha. et optisk prisme.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Slik energiatskillelse er interessant siden elektroner som blir sendt gjennom en prøve i mange tilfeller vil tape litt energi. Energien elektronene taper skyldes vekselvirkninger med materialet i prøven, og energien elektronene taper vil dermed være karakteristisk for materialet det passerer igjennom.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EELS brukes til analytisk mikroskopi, og er spesielt egnet til deteksjon av lettere atomer, pga den høye deteksjons-effektiviteten og den gode oppløsningen. Energioppløsningen til EELS er rundt 0.1 eV, den romlige oppløsningen er 0.5nm og den analytiske nøyaktigheten er rundt hundre atomer. Dette er mye bedre enn andre analytiske metoder som [[EDS]] og [[WDS]].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Energy Filtered TEM - EFTEM ===&lt;br /&gt;
Gitt et oppsett som ved [[EELS]], vil man etter det magnetiske prismet ha signalet spredd i rommet etter elektronenergi, og signalet vil være i [[resiprokt rom]]. Dette vil si at i et hvert &amp;quot;energibånd&amp;quot; (høydeutsnitt), vil ha et komplett romlig bilde av prøven. Hvis man da bruker et apertur til å kun velge seg ut elektroner med en viss energi, og konverterer signalet tilbake til reelt rom, vil man få et bildet av &#039;&#039;hvor i prøven elektroner med en viss energi kommer i fra&#039;&#039;. Da forskjellige materialer gjerne gir større energitap for elektronene som passerer, vil man kunne bruke EFTEM til å lokalisere spesifikke materialer i prøven. Denne &amp;quot;filtreringen&amp;quot; fører til mye bedre kontrast, enn ved vanlige diffraksjonbilder, og kan gi mye bedre bilder av atomer med lignende atomnummer.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Scanning TEM - STEM===&lt;br /&gt;
Fokuserer strålen slik at man kan scanne bildet, i stedet for å få informasjonen simultant. STEM har alle de samme funksjonene som vanlig TEM, og man kan dermed få bright field, dark field, HAADF osv. I HAADF får man nå noe som kalles z-contrast, altså en direkte sammenheng mellom den lokale kontrasten og mass-thickness kontrasten som avhenger av atom nummeret (Z).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== High Angle Annular Dark Field - HAADF=== &lt;br /&gt;
Kommer av elektroner som blir avbøyd kraftig av tunge atom-kjerner (Z-kontrast). HAADF er altså avhengig av størrelsen på atomene og ikke strukturen til latticen, som vanlig DF er. Brukes kun i sammenheng med STEM (har ikke funnet noen eksempler på HAADF-TEM, kun HAADF-STEM).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori: teknikker i tools]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=X-Ray_Photon_Spectroscopy&amp;diff=4120</id>
		<title>X-Ray Photon Spectroscopy</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=X-Ray_Photon_Spectroscopy&amp;diff=4120"/>
		<updated>2009-05-27T06:49:20Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Kvalitativ analyse av sekundære elektroner som kommer fra prøven når man sender røntgenstråling på. Røntgenstrålene absorberes av atomene, og fører til at elektroner blir &amp;quot;dyttet&amp;quot; ut av prøven. Energien elektronene kommer ut med er avhengig av den initielle bindingsenergien og energien til røntgenstrålene. XPS er dermed sensitiv til ikke bare den kjemiske sammensetningen, men også til bindingsstrukturen. De sekundære elektronene kommer fra bare noen få atomlag under overflaten, XPS er dermed ekstremt sensitiv til kjemiske forandringer på overflaten. Siden røntgenstråler ikke kan fokuseres får man ingen romlig oppløsning ved XPS. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Siden dette er en overflateteknikk må prøven være fri for forurensing. XPS må altså gjøres i ultrahøyt vakuum (&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;10^{-8} Torr&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;). Prøven er som regel &amp;quot;rensket&amp;quot; med sputtering først. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Denne metoden er brukt for studier av adsorpsjon av gass eller katalyse med monolag.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori: Teknikker i tools]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3954</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3954"/>
		<updated>2009-05-04T12:45:48Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Reisemål som ble forkastet */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007. Det er bestemt at reiemålet blir Kinas hovedstad Beijing og omegn.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Om Kina som reisemål=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Forslag til reisemål som ble forkastet=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==California==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden har dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.intel.com/ &#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;]&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
*Quantum Dot Corporation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
*Visum&lt;br /&gt;
**Må ha elektronsik pass, for nytt pass 450 NOK (Kilde: politi.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Koster 750 NOK (Kilde: Den amerikanske ambassade)&lt;br /&gt;
*Reiseforsikring&lt;br /&gt;
**Kan gjøres billig, eller f.eks. Europeiske, verden helår: 1215 NOK&lt;br /&gt;
*Flybilletter&lt;br /&gt;
**Trondheim - San Francisco apprxo. 7 000 - 8 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Oslo -  San Francisco ned mot 5 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
*Overnatting&lt;br /&gt;
**approx. 200 NOK night^-1 for hostel (Kilde: hostels.com)&lt;br /&gt;
*Øl&lt;br /&gt;
**25-35 NOK arbitary beer unit^-1. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr (Kilde: pintprice.com).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Long Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Beverly Hills&lt;br /&gt;
*San Diego&lt;br /&gt;
** Varme, digge sandstrender&lt;br /&gt;
*Tijuana, Mexico&lt;br /&gt;
**Beryktet natteliv&lt;br /&gt;
*Central Valley&lt;br /&gt;
**Sierra Nevada Mountains, 800 miles med turmuligheter&lt;br /&gt;
**Kul ørken&lt;br /&gt;
*Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
** vakre strender og surfere&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter===&lt;br /&gt;
*California Institute of Technology (CALTECH)&lt;br /&gt;
**Kavli nanoscience institute driver forskning blant annet innen bionanoteknologi og nanofotinikk&lt;br /&gt;
*University of California @ Berkeley, San Diego og Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
**Har utvekslingsavtale med NTNU&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
*Infrastruktur&lt;br /&gt;
** lav språkbarriere&lt;br /&gt;
** Relativt bra og billig togtransport innenfor staten, for eksempel har Bay Area Rapid Transit typsisk 15 min ruter mellom San Francisco Peninsula og Oakland, Berkeley, Fremont, Walnut Creek og andre byer i East Bay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vest-Europa==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Japan==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Tokyo&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Innbygggertall: 127 millioner&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Språk: Japansk&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nagano (De japanske Alper)&lt;br /&gt;
De fleste kjenner Nagano som vertsby for vinter-OL 1998. Byen er den største i området og blant dens fineste severdighet er Zenkoji tempelet som absolutt bør ses hvis man kommer til de japanske alpene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Skiområdet (De japanske Alper)&lt;br /&gt;
De berømte skisportsstedene ligger et stykke utenfor Nagano. Mange av de beste skiområdene ligger i Shiga platået og i nasjonalparken Joshin-Etsu Kogen Kokuritsu -Koen. Innimellom alle disse skisportsstedene ligger mange deilige kursteder.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
De fem sjøene ved Fuji (Fujiyama)&lt;br /&gt;
I nærheten av Fuji ligger De fem sjøene. Sjøene er berømte for deres skjønnhet og det er mulig å dyrke vannsport ved sjøene. Det er også forlystelsesparker i området. Man kommer lettest ut til sjøene med buss eller svevebane.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Kursteder ved Hakone (Fujiyama)&lt;br /&gt;
Hvis man er til kursteder og varme kilder bør man reise til Hakone. De fleste kurstedene ligger omkring Ashinoko sjøen. Prøv en seiltur på sjøen eller ta svevebanen eller toget til Owakudani hvor de fleste varme kildene ligger.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Atombombekuppelen (Genbaku Domu) (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Genbaku Domu er det siste som står tilbake av vitnesbyrd på atombombens ødeleggelser i 1945. Opprinnelig var bygningen en industrihall, men stålskjelettet som står tilbake minner om en langt vakrere bygning. Bygningens minner om blodig fortid står i skarp kontrast til nåtidens Hiroshima.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Hiroshima borgen (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Hiroshima borgen er, som alt annet i Hiroshima, ikke mer enn 55 år gammel. Allikevel lever borgen opp til alle ens fantasier om gammel japansk middelalderborg. I tårnet er det en spennende utstilling med våpen og rustninger.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Torii porten (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Torii porten ligger 20 kilometer fra Hiroshima. De fleste vil gjenkjenne den fra bilder og film om Japan uten å kjenne den ved navn. Torii porten er 17 meter høy, bygget av rødt tre og står midt ute i vannet utenfor Shintotempel øyen Miyajima. Nyt også den praktfulle naturen på øyen.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fjellet Fuji (Japan)&lt;br /&gt;
Fuji er Japans høyeste fjell. Offisielt kan man kun bestige Fuji i juli og august, men det kan i virkeligheten gjøres hele året, selv om det krever en del rutine i vinterhalvåret. Skiltingen er god og man går seg ikke bort.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Meiji Jingu Tempelet (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Tempelet er imponerende og ligger i en av Tokyos vakre parker og er blant de helligste i Japan. Nyttårsdag besøker mange japanere dette tempelet iført kimonoer. Tempelet er dedikert til keiser Meiji som i sin tid åpnet Japan for omverdenen. Tempelet inneholder mange av keiserens personlige eiendeler. Parkens irishage er blant Japans vakreste.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sanjusangendo Tempelet (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Sanjusangendo tempelet i Kyoto er et imponerende stort tempel. Det stod ferdig i 1266 og de 1001 statuene er et av Kamukara periodens mesterverker. Den 15. januar holdes den årlige bueskytingskonkurransen. En tradisjon som stammer fra det 16. århundre.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Gullpaviljongen (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Kinkakuji (gullpaviljongen) er en av Kyotos absolutte severdigheter. Tempelet ble oppført i det 14. århundre, men måtte gjenoppføres i 1955 etter at en sinnsyk tempelprest brendte det ned. Tempelet er dekket med bladgull og er en nøyaktig kopi av det gamle Kinkakuji.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset i Kyoto (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset er en av de få serverdigheten i Kyotos sentrum. Det nåværende palasset ble oppført i 1855 som erstatning for et tidligere nedbrendt palass. Palasset kan kun besøkes i grupper. Rundvisningene er veldig ettertraktet og det kan anbefales å søke om plass til disse turene allerede en dag i forveien.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nara (Nara)&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nara ligger en halv times togtur fra Kyoto. I Nara gjenfinner man Kyotos særlige atmosfære. Byen ble i 710 Japans første permanente hovedstad og har mange velbevarte templer. I Nara Park går det tamme hjort rundt mellom templene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Himeji (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Himeji ligger halvannen times togtur fra Osaka. Byen rommer kanskje Japans vakreste borg som mange nok vil huske fra tv-serien &amp;quot;Shogun&amp;quot;. Den Hvite Hejres Borg (Shirasagi-jo) er et fantastisk byggeri som med sine hvite murer og kurvede tegltak emmer av østens mystikk, innvendig som utvendig. Til borgen er det knyttet to museer og den berømte kirkegården Nagayama.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Osaka (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Osaka byr på våpen og maleriutstillinger. Borgen er opprinnelig fra det 16. århundre, men har brendt ned et par ganger siden. Borgen er restaurert og har innvendig heis. Ved siden av borgen ligger Osaka bymuseum med samlinger relatert til byens historie samt en mindre keramikksamling.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Senri Expo Park (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Litt nord for Osaka ligger Senri Expo Park hvor Expo ble holdt i 1970. Her finner man blant annet den vakre landskapshagen som ble anlagt i forbindelse med Expo utstillingen. Det hører også et etnologisk museum til parken hvor det utstilles ting og film fra hele verden.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bryggeriet i Sapporo (Sapporo)&lt;br /&gt;
På Sapporos bryggeri kan alle ølelskere komme på en gratis rundvisning og smake den gode japanske bryggekunst.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Nakajima Koen parken (Sapporo)&lt;br /&gt;
Ønsker man en forsmak på Hokkaidos skjønne natur bør man besøke Nakajima Koen parken. Her kan man slappe av i parkens landskapshage og besøke det historiske tehuset.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Disneyland i Tokyo (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Disneyland i Tokyo er en tro kopi av Disneyland i California og har de samme attraksjonene. Forlystelsesparken ble innviet i 1983 og har vært en enorm suksess siden. Hvis man ennå ikke har opplevd Disneyland bør man gripe sjansen her. For å unngå trengsel bør man dra der i hverdagene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ginza distriktet (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Litt sydøst for keiserpalasset ligger Ginza distriktet hvor den mest kjøpelystne kan slå seg løs. Her ligger det mange spesialbutikker og stormagasiner. I kvarteret kan man finne mange utenlandske aviser og tollfrie butikker.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset er en av de severdighetene man bør besøke under oppholdet i Tokyo. Det er ikke adgang til selve palasset hvor keiserfamilien bor, men gå en tur i parken og nyt utsikten innover palasset.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Singapore og Malaysia==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3953</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3953"/>
		<updated>2009-05-04T12:44:53Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Om reisemåtet */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007. Det er bestemt at reiemålet blir Kinas hovedstad Beijing og omegn.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Om Kina som reisemål=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Reisemål som ble forkastet=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==California==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden har dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.intel.com/ &#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;]&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
*Quantum Dot Corporation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
*Visum&lt;br /&gt;
**Må ha elektronsik pass, for nytt pass 450 NOK (Kilde: politi.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Koster 750 NOK (Kilde: Den amerikanske ambassade)&lt;br /&gt;
*Reiseforsikring&lt;br /&gt;
**Kan gjøres billig, eller f.eks. Europeiske, verden helår: 1215 NOK&lt;br /&gt;
*Flybilletter&lt;br /&gt;
**Trondheim - San Francisco apprxo. 7 000 - 8 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Oslo -  San Francisco ned mot 5 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
*Overnatting&lt;br /&gt;
**approx. 200 NOK night^-1 for hostel (Kilde: hostels.com)&lt;br /&gt;
*Øl&lt;br /&gt;
**25-35 NOK arbitary beer unit^-1. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr (Kilde: pintprice.com).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Long Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Beverly Hills&lt;br /&gt;
*San Diego&lt;br /&gt;
** Varme, digge sandstrender&lt;br /&gt;
*Tijuana, Mexico&lt;br /&gt;
**Beryktet natteliv&lt;br /&gt;
*Central Valley&lt;br /&gt;
**Sierra Nevada Mountains, 800 miles med turmuligheter&lt;br /&gt;
**Kul ørken&lt;br /&gt;
*Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
** vakre strender og surfere&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter===&lt;br /&gt;
*California Institute of Technology (CALTECH)&lt;br /&gt;
**Kavli nanoscience institute driver forskning blant annet innen bionanoteknologi og nanofotinikk&lt;br /&gt;
*University of California @ Berkeley, San Diego og Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
**Har utvekslingsavtale med NTNU&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
*Infrastruktur&lt;br /&gt;
** lav språkbarriere&lt;br /&gt;
** Relativt bra og billig togtransport innenfor staten, for eksempel har Bay Area Rapid Transit typsisk 15 min ruter mellom San Francisco Peninsula og Oakland, Berkeley, Fremont, Walnut Creek og andre byer i East Bay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vest-Europa==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Japan==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Tokyo&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Innbygggertall: 127 millioner&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Språk: Japansk&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nagano (De japanske Alper)&lt;br /&gt;
De fleste kjenner Nagano som vertsby for vinter-OL 1998. Byen er den største i området og blant dens fineste severdighet er Zenkoji tempelet som absolutt bør ses hvis man kommer til de japanske alpene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Skiområdet (De japanske Alper)&lt;br /&gt;
De berømte skisportsstedene ligger et stykke utenfor Nagano. Mange av de beste skiområdene ligger i Shiga platået og i nasjonalparken Joshin-Etsu Kogen Kokuritsu -Koen. Innimellom alle disse skisportsstedene ligger mange deilige kursteder.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
De fem sjøene ved Fuji (Fujiyama)&lt;br /&gt;
I nærheten av Fuji ligger De fem sjøene. Sjøene er berømte for deres skjønnhet og det er mulig å dyrke vannsport ved sjøene. Det er også forlystelsesparker i området. Man kommer lettest ut til sjøene med buss eller svevebane.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Kursteder ved Hakone (Fujiyama)&lt;br /&gt;
Hvis man er til kursteder og varme kilder bør man reise til Hakone. De fleste kurstedene ligger omkring Ashinoko sjøen. Prøv en seiltur på sjøen eller ta svevebanen eller toget til Owakudani hvor de fleste varme kildene ligger.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Atombombekuppelen (Genbaku Domu) (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Genbaku Domu er det siste som står tilbake av vitnesbyrd på atombombens ødeleggelser i 1945. Opprinnelig var bygningen en industrihall, men stålskjelettet som står tilbake minner om en langt vakrere bygning. Bygningens minner om blodig fortid står i skarp kontrast til nåtidens Hiroshima.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Hiroshima borgen (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Hiroshima borgen er, som alt annet i Hiroshima, ikke mer enn 55 år gammel. Allikevel lever borgen opp til alle ens fantasier om gammel japansk middelalderborg. I tårnet er det en spennende utstilling med våpen og rustninger.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Torii porten (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Torii porten ligger 20 kilometer fra Hiroshima. De fleste vil gjenkjenne den fra bilder og film om Japan uten å kjenne den ved navn. Torii porten er 17 meter høy, bygget av rødt tre og står midt ute i vannet utenfor Shintotempel øyen Miyajima. Nyt også den praktfulle naturen på øyen.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fjellet Fuji (Japan)&lt;br /&gt;
Fuji er Japans høyeste fjell. Offisielt kan man kun bestige Fuji i juli og august, men det kan i virkeligheten gjøres hele året, selv om det krever en del rutine i vinterhalvåret. Skiltingen er god og man går seg ikke bort.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Meiji Jingu Tempelet (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Tempelet er imponerende og ligger i en av Tokyos vakre parker og er blant de helligste i Japan. Nyttårsdag besøker mange japanere dette tempelet iført kimonoer. Tempelet er dedikert til keiser Meiji som i sin tid åpnet Japan for omverdenen. Tempelet inneholder mange av keiserens personlige eiendeler. Parkens irishage er blant Japans vakreste.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sanjusangendo Tempelet (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Sanjusangendo tempelet i Kyoto er et imponerende stort tempel. Det stod ferdig i 1266 og de 1001 statuene er et av Kamukara periodens mesterverker. Den 15. januar holdes den årlige bueskytingskonkurransen. En tradisjon som stammer fra det 16. århundre.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Gullpaviljongen (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Kinkakuji (gullpaviljongen) er en av Kyotos absolutte severdigheter. Tempelet ble oppført i det 14. århundre, men måtte gjenoppføres i 1955 etter at en sinnsyk tempelprest brendte det ned. Tempelet er dekket med bladgull og er en nøyaktig kopi av det gamle Kinkakuji.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset i Kyoto (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset er en av de få serverdigheten i Kyotos sentrum. Det nåværende palasset ble oppført i 1855 som erstatning for et tidligere nedbrendt palass. Palasset kan kun besøkes i grupper. Rundvisningene er veldig ettertraktet og det kan anbefales å søke om plass til disse turene allerede en dag i forveien.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nara (Nara)&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nara ligger en halv times togtur fra Kyoto. I Nara gjenfinner man Kyotos særlige atmosfære. Byen ble i 710 Japans første permanente hovedstad og har mange velbevarte templer. I Nara Park går det tamme hjort rundt mellom templene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Himeji (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Himeji ligger halvannen times togtur fra Osaka. Byen rommer kanskje Japans vakreste borg som mange nok vil huske fra tv-serien &amp;quot;Shogun&amp;quot;. Den Hvite Hejres Borg (Shirasagi-jo) er et fantastisk byggeri som med sine hvite murer og kurvede tegltak emmer av østens mystikk, innvendig som utvendig. Til borgen er det knyttet to museer og den berømte kirkegården Nagayama.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Osaka (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Osaka byr på våpen og maleriutstillinger. Borgen er opprinnelig fra det 16. århundre, men har brendt ned et par ganger siden. Borgen er restaurert og har innvendig heis. Ved siden av borgen ligger Osaka bymuseum med samlinger relatert til byens historie samt en mindre keramikksamling.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Senri Expo Park (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Litt nord for Osaka ligger Senri Expo Park hvor Expo ble holdt i 1970. Her finner man blant annet den vakre landskapshagen som ble anlagt i forbindelse med Expo utstillingen. Det hører også et etnologisk museum til parken hvor det utstilles ting og film fra hele verden.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bryggeriet i Sapporo (Sapporo)&lt;br /&gt;
På Sapporos bryggeri kan alle ølelskere komme på en gratis rundvisning og smake den gode japanske bryggekunst.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Nakajima Koen parken (Sapporo)&lt;br /&gt;
Ønsker man en forsmak på Hokkaidos skjønne natur bør man besøke Nakajima Koen parken. Her kan man slappe av i parkens landskapshage og besøke det historiske tehuset.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Disneyland i Tokyo (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Disneyland i Tokyo er en tro kopi av Disneyland i California og har de samme attraksjonene. Forlystelsesparken ble innviet i 1983 og har vært en enorm suksess siden. Hvis man ennå ikke har opplevd Disneyland bør man gripe sjansen her. For å unngå trengsel bør man dra der i hverdagene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ginza distriktet (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Litt sydøst for keiserpalasset ligger Ginza distriktet hvor den mest kjøpelystne kan slå seg løs. Her ligger det mange spesialbutikker og stormagasiner. I kvarteret kan man finne mange utenlandske aviser og tollfrie butikker.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset er en av de severdighetene man bør besøke under oppholdet i Tokyo. Det er ikke adgang til selve palasset hvor keiserfamilien bor, men gå en tur i parken og nyt utsikten innover palasset.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Singapore og Malaysia==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3952</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3952"/>
		<updated>2009-05-04T12:44:09Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007. Det er bestemt at reiemålet blir Kinas hovedstad Beijing og omegn.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Om reisemåtet=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Reisemål som ble forkastet=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==California==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden har dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.intel.com/ &#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;]&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
*Quantum Dot Corporation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
*Visum&lt;br /&gt;
**Må ha elektronsik pass, for nytt pass 450 NOK (Kilde: politi.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Koster 750 NOK (Kilde: Den amerikanske ambassade)&lt;br /&gt;
*Reiseforsikring&lt;br /&gt;
**Kan gjøres billig, eller f.eks. Europeiske, verden helår: 1215 NOK&lt;br /&gt;
*Flybilletter&lt;br /&gt;
**Trondheim - San Francisco apprxo. 7 000 - 8 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Oslo -  San Francisco ned mot 5 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
*Overnatting&lt;br /&gt;
**approx. 200 NOK night^-1 for hostel (Kilde: hostels.com)&lt;br /&gt;
*Øl&lt;br /&gt;
**25-35 NOK arbitary beer unit^-1. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr (Kilde: pintprice.com).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Long Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Beverly Hills&lt;br /&gt;
*San Diego&lt;br /&gt;
** Varme, digge sandstrender&lt;br /&gt;
*Tijuana, Mexico&lt;br /&gt;
**Beryktet natteliv&lt;br /&gt;
*Central Valley&lt;br /&gt;
**Sierra Nevada Mountains, 800 miles med turmuligheter&lt;br /&gt;
**Kul ørken&lt;br /&gt;
*Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
** vakre strender og surfere&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter===&lt;br /&gt;
*California Institute of Technology (CALTECH)&lt;br /&gt;
**Kavli nanoscience institute driver forskning blant annet innen bionanoteknologi og nanofotinikk&lt;br /&gt;
*University of California @ Berkeley, San Diego og Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
**Har utvekslingsavtale med NTNU&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
*Infrastruktur&lt;br /&gt;
** lav språkbarriere&lt;br /&gt;
** Relativt bra og billig togtransport innenfor staten, for eksempel har Bay Area Rapid Transit typsisk 15 min ruter mellom San Francisco Peninsula og Oakland, Berkeley, Fremont, Walnut Creek og andre byer i East Bay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vest-Europa==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Japan==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Tokyo&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Innbygggertall: 127 millioner&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Språk: Japansk&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nagano (De japanske Alper)&lt;br /&gt;
De fleste kjenner Nagano som vertsby for vinter-OL 1998. Byen er den største i området og blant dens fineste severdighet er Zenkoji tempelet som absolutt bør ses hvis man kommer til de japanske alpene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Skiområdet (De japanske Alper)&lt;br /&gt;
De berømte skisportsstedene ligger et stykke utenfor Nagano. Mange av de beste skiområdene ligger i Shiga platået og i nasjonalparken Joshin-Etsu Kogen Kokuritsu -Koen. Innimellom alle disse skisportsstedene ligger mange deilige kursteder.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
De fem sjøene ved Fuji (Fujiyama)&lt;br /&gt;
I nærheten av Fuji ligger De fem sjøene. Sjøene er berømte for deres skjønnhet og det er mulig å dyrke vannsport ved sjøene. Det er også forlystelsesparker i området. Man kommer lettest ut til sjøene med buss eller svevebane.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Kursteder ved Hakone (Fujiyama)&lt;br /&gt;
Hvis man er til kursteder og varme kilder bør man reise til Hakone. De fleste kurstedene ligger omkring Ashinoko sjøen. Prøv en seiltur på sjøen eller ta svevebanen eller toget til Owakudani hvor de fleste varme kildene ligger.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Atombombekuppelen (Genbaku Domu) (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Genbaku Domu er det siste som står tilbake av vitnesbyrd på atombombens ødeleggelser i 1945. Opprinnelig var bygningen en industrihall, men stålskjelettet som står tilbake minner om en langt vakrere bygning. Bygningens minner om blodig fortid står i skarp kontrast til nåtidens Hiroshima.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Hiroshima borgen (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Hiroshima borgen er, som alt annet i Hiroshima, ikke mer enn 55 år gammel. Allikevel lever borgen opp til alle ens fantasier om gammel japansk middelalderborg. I tårnet er det en spennende utstilling med våpen og rustninger.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Torii porten (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Torii porten ligger 20 kilometer fra Hiroshima. De fleste vil gjenkjenne den fra bilder og film om Japan uten å kjenne den ved navn. Torii porten er 17 meter høy, bygget av rødt tre og står midt ute i vannet utenfor Shintotempel øyen Miyajima. Nyt også den praktfulle naturen på øyen.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fjellet Fuji (Japan)&lt;br /&gt;
Fuji er Japans høyeste fjell. Offisielt kan man kun bestige Fuji i juli og august, men det kan i virkeligheten gjøres hele året, selv om det krever en del rutine i vinterhalvåret. Skiltingen er god og man går seg ikke bort.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Meiji Jingu Tempelet (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Tempelet er imponerende og ligger i en av Tokyos vakre parker og er blant de helligste i Japan. Nyttårsdag besøker mange japanere dette tempelet iført kimonoer. Tempelet er dedikert til keiser Meiji som i sin tid åpnet Japan for omverdenen. Tempelet inneholder mange av keiserens personlige eiendeler. Parkens irishage er blant Japans vakreste.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sanjusangendo Tempelet (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Sanjusangendo tempelet i Kyoto er et imponerende stort tempel. Det stod ferdig i 1266 og de 1001 statuene er et av Kamukara periodens mesterverker. Den 15. januar holdes den årlige bueskytingskonkurransen. En tradisjon som stammer fra det 16. århundre.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Gullpaviljongen (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Kinkakuji (gullpaviljongen) er en av Kyotos absolutte severdigheter. Tempelet ble oppført i det 14. århundre, men måtte gjenoppføres i 1955 etter at en sinnsyk tempelprest brendte det ned. Tempelet er dekket med bladgull og er en nøyaktig kopi av det gamle Kinkakuji.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset i Kyoto (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset er en av de få serverdigheten i Kyotos sentrum. Det nåværende palasset ble oppført i 1855 som erstatning for et tidligere nedbrendt palass. Palasset kan kun besøkes i grupper. Rundvisningene er veldig ettertraktet og det kan anbefales å søke om plass til disse turene allerede en dag i forveien.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nara (Nara)&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nara ligger en halv times togtur fra Kyoto. I Nara gjenfinner man Kyotos særlige atmosfære. Byen ble i 710 Japans første permanente hovedstad og har mange velbevarte templer. I Nara Park går det tamme hjort rundt mellom templene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Himeji (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Himeji ligger halvannen times togtur fra Osaka. Byen rommer kanskje Japans vakreste borg som mange nok vil huske fra tv-serien &amp;quot;Shogun&amp;quot;. Den Hvite Hejres Borg (Shirasagi-jo) er et fantastisk byggeri som med sine hvite murer og kurvede tegltak emmer av østens mystikk, innvendig som utvendig. Til borgen er det knyttet to museer og den berømte kirkegården Nagayama.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Osaka (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Osaka byr på våpen og maleriutstillinger. Borgen er opprinnelig fra det 16. århundre, men har brendt ned et par ganger siden. Borgen er restaurert og har innvendig heis. Ved siden av borgen ligger Osaka bymuseum med samlinger relatert til byens historie samt en mindre keramikksamling.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Senri Expo Park (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Litt nord for Osaka ligger Senri Expo Park hvor Expo ble holdt i 1970. Her finner man blant annet den vakre landskapshagen som ble anlagt i forbindelse med Expo utstillingen. Det hører også et etnologisk museum til parken hvor det utstilles ting og film fra hele verden.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bryggeriet i Sapporo (Sapporo)&lt;br /&gt;
På Sapporos bryggeri kan alle ølelskere komme på en gratis rundvisning og smake den gode japanske bryggekunst.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Nakajima Koen parken (Sapporo)&lt;br /&gt;
Ønsker man en forsmak på Hokkaidos skjønne natur bør man besøke Nakajima Koen parken. Her kan man slappe av i parkens landskapshage og besøke det historiske tehuset.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Disneyland i Tokyo (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Disneyland i Tokyo er en tro kopi av Disneyland i California og har de samme attraksjonene. Forlystelsesparken ble innviet i 1983 og har vært en enorm suksess siden. Hvis man ennå ikke har opplevd Disneyland bør man gripe sjansen her. For å unngå trengsel bør man dra der i hverdagene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ginza distriktet (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Litt sydøst for keiserpalasset ligger Ginza distriktet hvor den mest kjøpelystne kan slå seg løs. Her ligger det mange spesialbutikker og stormagasiner. I kvarteret kan man finne mange utenlandske aviser og tollfrie butikker.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset er en av de severdighetene man bør besøke under oppholdet i Tokyo. Det er ikke adgang til selve palasset hvor keiserfamilien bor, men gå en tur i parken og nyt utsikten innover palasset.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Singapore og Malaysia==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3941</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3941"/>
		<updated>2009-05-03T08:58:45Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Nanoteknologi-bedrifter */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.intel.com/ &#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;]&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
*Quantum Dot Corporation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
*Visum&lt;br /&gt;
**Må ha elektronsik pass, for nytt pass 450 NOK (Kilde: politi.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Koster 750 NOK (Kilde: Den amerikanske ambassade)&lt;br /&gt;
*Reiseforsikring&lt;br /&gt;
**Kan gjøres billig, eller f.eks. Europeiske, verden helår: 1215 NOK&lt;br /&gt;
*Flybilletter&lt;br /&gt;
**Trondheim - San Francisco apprxo. 7 000 - 8 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Oslo -  San Francisco ned mot 5 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
*Overnatting&lt;br /&gt;
**approx. 200 NOK night^-1 for hostel (Kilde: hostels.com)&lt;br /&gt;
*Øl&lt;br /&gt;
**25-35 NOK arbitary beer unit^-1. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr (Kilde: pintprice.com).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter===&lt;br /&gt;
*California Institute of Technology (CALTECH)&lt;br /&gt;
**Kavli nanoscience institute driver forskning blant annet innen bionanoteknologi og nanofotinikk&lt;br /&gt;
*University of California @ Berkeley, San Diego og Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
**Har utvekslingsavtale med NTNU&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Tokyo&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Innbygggertall: 127 millioner&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Språk: Japansk&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nagano (De japanske Alper)&lt;br /&gt;
De fleste kjenner Nagano som vertsby for vinter-OL 1998. Byen er den største i området og blant dens fineste severdighet er Zenkoji tempelet som absolutt bør ses hvis man kommer til de japanske alpene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Skiområdet (De japanske Alper)&lt;br /&gt;
De berømte skisportsstedene ligger et stykke utenfor Nagano. Mange av de beste skiområdene ligger i Shiga platået og i nasjonalparken Joshin-Etsu Kogen Kokuritsu -Koen. Innimellom alle disse skisportsstedene ligger mange deilige kursteder.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
De fem sjøene ved Fuji (Fujiyama)&lt;br /&gt;
I nærheten av Fuji ligger De fem sjøene. Sjøene er berømte for deres skjønnhet og det er mulig å dyrke vannsport ved sjøene. Det er også forlystelsesparker i området. Man kommer lettest ut til sjøene med buss eller svevebane.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Kursteder ved Hakone (Fujiyama)&lt;br /&gt;
Hvis man er til kursteder og varme kilder bør man reise til Hakone. De fleste kurstedene ligger omkring Ashinoko sjøen. Prøv en seiltur på sjøen eller ta svevebanen eller toget til Owakudani hvor de fleste varme kildene ligger.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Atombombekuppelen (Genbaku Domu) (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Genbaku Domu er det siste som står tilbake av vitnesbyrd på atombombens ødeleggelser i 1945. Opprinnelig var bygningen en industrihall, men stålskjelettet som står tilbake minner om en langt vakrere bygning. Bygningens minner om blodig fortid står i skarp kontrast til nåtidens Hiroshima.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Hiroshima borgen (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Hiroshima borgen er, som alt annet i Hiroshima, ikke mer enn 55 år gammel. Allikevel lever borgen opp til alle ens fantasier om gammel japansk middelalderborg. I tårnet er det en spennende utstilling med våpen og rustninger.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Torii porten (Hiroshima)&lt;br /&gt;
Torii porten ligger 20 kilometer fra Hiroshima. De fleste vil gjenkjenne den fra bilder og film om Japan uten å kjenne den ved navn. Torii porten er 17 meter høy, bygget av rødt tre og står midt ute i vannet utenfor Shintotempel øyen Miyajima. Nyt også den praktfulle naturen på øyen.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fjellet Fuji (Japan)&lt;br /&gt;
Fuji er Japans høyeste fjell. Offisielt kan man kun bestige Fuji i juli og august, men det kan i virkeligheten gjøres hele året, selv om det krever en del rutine i vinterhalvåret. Skiltingen er god og man går seg ikke bort.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Meiji Jingu Tempelet (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Tempelet er imponerende og ligger i en av Tokyos vakre parker og er blant de helligste i Japan. Nyttårsdag besøker mange japanere dette tempelet iført kimonoer. Tempelet er dedikert til keiser Meiji som i sin tid åpnet Japan for omverdenen. Tempelet inneholder mange av keiserens personlige eiendeler. Parkens irishage er blant Japans vakreste.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Sanjusangendo Tempelet (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Sanjusangendo tempelet i Kyoto er et imponerende stort tempel. Det stod ferdig i 1266 og de 1001 statuene er et av Kamukara periodens mesterverker. Den 15. januar holdes den årlige bueskytingskonkurransen. En tradisjon som stammer fra det 16. århundre.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Gullpaviljongen (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Kinkakuji (gullpaviljongen) er en av Kyotos absolutte severdigheter. Tempelet ble oppført i det 14. århundre, men måtte gjenoppføres i 1955 etter at en sinnsyk tempelprest brendte det ned. Tempelet er dekket med bladgull og er en nøyaktig kopi av det gamle Kinkakuji.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset i Kyoto (Kyoto)&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset er en av de få serverdigheten i Kyotos sentrum. Det nåværende palasset ble oppført i 1855 som erstatning for et tidligere nedbrendt palass. Palasset kan kun besøkes i grupper. Rundvisningene er veldig ettertraktet og det kan anbefales å søke om plass til disse turene allerede en dag i forveien.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nara (Nara)&lt;br /&gt;
Byen Nara ligger en halv times togtur fra Kyoto. I Nara gjenfinner man Kyotos særlige atmosfære. Byen ble i 710 Japans første permanente hovedstad og har mange velbevarte templer. I Nara Park går det tamme hjort rundt mellom templene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Himeji (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Himeji ligger halvannen times togtur fra Osaka. Byen rommer kanskje Japans vakreste borg som mange nok vil huske fra tv-serien &amp;quot;Shogun&amp;quot;. Den Hvite Hejres Borg (Shirasagi-jo) er et fantastisk byggeri som med sine hvite murer og kurvede tegltak emmer av østens mystikk, innvendig som utvendig. Til borgen er det knyttet to museer og den berømte kirkegården Nagayama.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Osaka (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Borgen i Osaka byr på våpen og maleriutstillinger. Borgen er opprinnelig fra det 16. århundre, men har brendt ned et par ganger siden. Borgen er restaurert og har innvendig heis. Ved siden av borgen ligger Osaka bymuseum med samlinger relatert til byens historie samt en mindre keramikksamling.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Senri Expo Park (Osaka)&lt;br /&gt;
Litt nord for Osaka ligger Senri Expo Park hvor Expo ble holdt i 1970. Her finner man blant annet den vakre landskapshagen som ble anlagt i forbindelse med Expo utstillingen. Det hører også et etnologisk museum til parken hvor det utstilles ting og film fra hele verden.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bryggeriet i Sapporo (Sapporo)&lt;br /&gt;
På Sapporos bryggeri kan alle ølelskere komme på en gratis rundvisning og smake den gode japanske bryggekunst.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Nakajima Koen parken (Sapporo)&lt;br /&gt;
Ønsker man en forsmak på Hokkaidos skjønne natur bør man besøke Nakajima Koen parken. Her kan man slappe av i parkens landskapshage og besøke det historiske tehuset.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Disneyland i Tokyo (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Disneyland i Tokyo er en tro kopi av Disneyland i California og har de samme attraksjonene. Forlystelsesparken ble innviet i 1983 og har vært en enorm suksess siden. Hvis man ennå ikke har opplevd Disneyland bør man gripe sjansen her. For å unngå trengsel bør man dra der i hverdagene.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ginza distriktet (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Litt sydøst for keiserpalasset ligger Ginza distriktet hvor den mest kjøpelystne kan slå seg løs. Her ligger det mange spesialbutikker og stormagasiner. I kvarteret kan man finne mange utenlandske aviser og tollfrie butikker.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset (Tokyo)&lt;br /&gt;
Keiserpalasset er en av de severdighetene man bør besøke under oppholdet i Tokyo. Det er ikke adgang til selve palasset hvor keiserfamilien bor, men gå en tur i parken og nyt utsikten innover palasset.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3937</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3937"/>
		<updated>2009-05-02T17:19:05Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Nanoteknologi-bedrifter */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.intel.com/ &#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;]&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I tillegg ligger det mange biorelevante bedrifter i området rundt San Fransico bay. Eksempler er:&lt;br /&gt;
*Quantum Dot Corporation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
*Visum&lt;br /&gt;
**Må ha elektronsik pass, for nytt pass 450 NOK (Kilde: politi.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Koster 750 NOK (Kilde: Den amerikanske ambassade)&lt;br /&gt;
*Reiseforsikring&lt;br /&gt;
**Kan gjøres billig, eller f.eks. Europeiske, verden helår: 1215 NOK&lt;br /&gt;
*Flybilletter&lt;br /&gt;
**Trondheim - San Francisco apprxo. 7 000 - 8 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Oslo -  San Francisco ned mot 5 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
*Overnatting&lt;br /&gt;
**approx. 200 NOK night^-1 for hostel (Kilde: hostels.com)&lt;br /&gt;
*Øl&lt;br /&gt;
**25-35 NOK arbitary beer unit^-1. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr (Kilde: pintprice.com).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter===&lt;br /&gt;
*California Institute of Technology (CALTECH)&lt;br /&gt;
**Kavli nanoscience institute driver forskning blant annet innen bionanoteknologi og nanofotinikk&lt;br /&gt;
*University of California @ Berkeley, San Diego og Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
**Har utvekslingsavtale med NTNU&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3936</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3936"/>
		<updated>2009-05-02T17:13:02Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Nanoteknologi-bedrifter */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I tillegg ligger det mange biorelevante bedrifter i området rundt San Fransico bay. Eksempler er:&lt;br /&gt;
*Quantum Dot Corporation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
*Visum&lt;br /&gt;
**Må ha elektronsik pass, for nytt pass 450 NOK (Kilde: politi.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Koster 750 NOK (Kilde: Den amerikanske ambassade)&lt;br /&gt;
*Reiseforsikring&lt;br /&gt;
**Kan gjøres billig, eller f.eks. Europeiske, verden helår: 1215 NOK&lt;br /&gt;
*Flybilletter&lt;br /&gt;
**Trondheim - San Francisco apprxo. 7 000 - 8 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Oslo -  San Francisco ned mot 5 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
*Overnatting&lt;br /&gt;
**approx. 200 NOK night^-1 for hostel (Kilde: hostels.com)&lt;br /&gt;
*Øl&lt;br /&gt;
**25-35 NOK arbitary beer unit^-1. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr (Kilde: pintprice.com).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter===&lt;br /&gt;
*California Institute of Technology (CALTECH)&lt;br /&gt;
**Kavli nanoscience institute driver forskning blant annet innen bionanoteknologi og nanofotinikk&lt;br /&gt;
*University of California @ Berkeley, San Diego og Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
**Har utvekslingsavtale med NTNU&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3935</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3935"/>
		<updated>2009-05-02T17:09:21Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Nanoteknologi-bedrifter */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
*Visum&lt;br /&gt;
**Må ha elektronsik pass, for nytt pass 450 NOK (Kilde: politi.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Koster 750 NOK (Kilde: Den amerikanske ambassade)&lt;br /&gt;
*Reiseforsikring&lt;br /&gt;
**Kan gjøres billig, eller f.eks. Europeiske, verden helår: 1215 NOK&lt;br /&gt;
*Flybilletter&lt;br /&gt;
**Trondheim - San Francisco apprxo. 7 000 - 8 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Oslo -  San Francisco ned mot 5 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
*Overnatting&lt;br /&gt;
**approx. 200 NOK night^-1 for hostel (Kilde: hostels.com)&lt;br /&gt;
*Øl&lt;br /&gt;
**25-35 NOK arbitary beer unit^-1. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr (Kilde: pintprice.com).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter===&lt;br /&gt;
*California Institute of Technology (CALTECH)&lt;br /&gt;
**Kavli nanoscience institute driver forskning blant annet innen bionanoteknologi og nanofotinikk&lt;br /&gt;
*University of California @ Berkeley, San Diego og Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
**Har utvekslingsavtale med NTNU&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3934</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3934"/>
		<updated>2009-05-02T17:08:34Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Økonomi */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Solectron&#039;&#039;&#039; &lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
*Visum&lt;br /&gt;
**Må ha elektronsik pass, for nytt pass 450 NOK (Kilde: politi.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Koster 750 NOK (Kilde: Den amerikanske ambassade)&lt;br /&gt;
*Reiseforsikring&lt;br /&gt;
**Kan gjøres billig, eller f.eks. Europeiske, verden helår: 1215 NOK&lt;br /&gt;
*Flybilletter&lt;br /&gt;
**Trondheim - San Francisco apprxo. 7 000 - 8 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
**Oslo -  San Francisco ned mot 5 000 NOK (Kilde: kelkoo.no)&lt;br /&gt;
*Overnatting&lt;br /&gt;
**approx. 200 NOK night^-1 for hostel (Kilde: hostels.com)&lt;br /&gt;
*Øl&lt;br /&gt;
**25-35 NOK arbitary beer unit^-1. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr (Kilde: pintprice.com).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter===&lt;br /&gt;
*California Institute of Technology (CALTECH)&lt;br /&gt;
**Kavli nanoscience institute driver forskning blant annet innen bionanoteknologi og nanofotinikk&lt;br /&gt;
*University of California @ Berkeley, San Diego og Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
**Har utvekslingsavtale med NTNU&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3933</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3933"/>
		<updated>2009-05-02T17:05:36Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Solectron&#039;&#039;&#039; &lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com koster en øl i California stort sett mellom 25 og 35 kr. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter===&lt;br /&gt;
*California Institute of Technology (CALTECH)&lt;br /&gt;
**Kavli nanoscience institute driver forskning blant annet innen bionanoteknologi og nanofotinikk&lt;br /&gt;
*University of California @ Berkeley, San Diego og Santa Barbara&lt;br /&gt;
**Har utvekslingsavtale med NTNU&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3877</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3877"/>
		<updated>2009-04-23T14:43:45Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Tidsplan */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15-12:00, R3: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Solectron&#039;&#039;&#039; &lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com koster en øl i California stort sett mellom 25 og 35 kr. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3876</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3876"/>
		<updated>2009-04-23T14:42:18Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Tidsplan */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009: Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 10:15, R10: Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010: Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010: Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Silicon Valley ligger den sørlige derlen av San Fransico Bay Area i Northern California og har fått navnet sitt på grunn av områdets høye konsentrasjon av innovative elektronikkbedrifter. Med tiden dette området blitt et slags symbol på nyskapning, entrepenørskap og ingeniørbragder. Silicon Valley er USAs ledende high-tech industriområde med bedrifter som (med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante):&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Solectron&#039;&#039;&#039; &lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*NASA Ames Research Center&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com koster en øl i California stort sett mellom 25 og 35 kr. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate Park&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Inter.jpg|left|thumb|500px|]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** Paris!&lt;br /&gt;
** Vinsmaking i Bourgogne, Champagne eller Bordeaux&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
*Frankrike&lt;br /&gt;
** INSA Toulouse&lt;br /&gt;
** UTT&lt;br /&gt;
**Université de téchnologie de Compiègne &lt;br /&gt;
**INPG - ENSIMAG&lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole Superieure d&#039;Ingenieurs de Marseille  &lt;br /&gt;
**Ecole National Chimie de Paris &lt;br /&gt;
**Université de Poitiers &lt;br /&gt;
**Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bare i Paris er det 7 universiteter, 6 &amp;quot;grandes écoles&amp;quot;  og 84 instutisjoner som kommer under den nasjonale handlingsplanen for nanoteknologi i Frankrike.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3685</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3685"/>
		<updated>2009-04-15T12:06:28Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Drillo-fakta */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009 Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010 Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010 Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
Med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Solectron&#039;&#039;&#039; &lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com koster en øl i California stort sett mellom 25 og 35 kr. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. I Paris må man regne med en 20-kr ekstra. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3684</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3684"/>
		<updated>2009-04-15T12:05:23Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Drillo-fakta */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009 Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010 Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010 Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
Hovedstad: Sacramento&lt;br /&gt;
Guvernør: Arnold &amp;quot;Da Governator&amp;quot; Schwarzenegger (R)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
Med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Solectron&#039;&#039;&#039; &lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com koster en øl i California stort sett mellom 25 og 35 kr. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. I Paris må man regne med en 20-kr ekstra. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3683</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3683"/>
		<updated>2009-04-15T12:02:20Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Attraksjoner */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009 Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010 Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010 Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
Med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Solectron&#039;&#039;&#039; &lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com koster en øl i California stort sett mellom 25 og 35 kr. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel?&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. I Paris må man regne med en 20-kr ekstra. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3682</id>
		<title>Hovedekskursjon 2010</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Hovedekskursjon_2010&amp;diff=3682"/>
		<updated>2009-04-15T11:57:52Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* California */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Denne artikkelen inneholder informasjon om hovedekskursjonen til MTNANOs kull 2007.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
= Tidsplan =&lt;br /&gt;
* 24.03.2009 Deadline for [http://www.timini.no/forum/viewtopic.php?t=1622 idémyldring på forumet]&lt;br /&gt;
* 04.05.2009 Allmøte med presentasjon av reisemålene og avstemming&lt;br /&gt;
* 19.03.2010 Planlagt avreise&lt;br /&gt;
* 09.04.2010 Planlagt hjemreise&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=California=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
Med forbehold om at ikke alle er direkte nanorelevante:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Apple Inc.&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Applied Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Google&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Intel&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*LSI Logic&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;National Semiconductor&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Sun Microsystems&lt;br /&gt;
*Asus&lt;br /&gt;
*Atari&lt;br /&gt;
*Cypress Semiconductor&lt;br /&gt;
*Facebook&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;IBM Almaden Research Center&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
*Opera Software&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Solectron&#039;&#039;&#039; &lt;br /&gt;
*Tesla Motors&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Power&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com koster en øl i California stort sett mellom 25 og 35 kr. I byen Chico kan man imidlertid få en duggfrisk til under 12 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
*San Fransisco&lt;br /&gt;
**Alcatraz&lt;br /&gt;
**Golden Gate&lt;br /&gt;
**Myth Busters + lignende serier fra Discovery Channel&lt;br /&gt;
**Twin peaks&lt;br /&gt;
*Los Angeles&lt;br /&gt;
**Santa Monica Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Venice Beach&lt;br /&gt;
**Hollywood&lt;br /&gt;
**Mexico?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Vest-Europa=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vanlige ølpriser er Frankrike er ca 50 kr i følge pintprice.com. I Paris må man regne med en 20-kr ekstra. 40 kr er typisk i Barcelona, mens man i Sveits slipper unna med 35 kr.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Kina=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Advapowder&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nanoscale diamond powder. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AgroMicron&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company develops Rapid Early Detection products. These products identify possible pathological threats from bioterrorism to pathogens plaguing global agriculture, animals and people. Test arrays include nanoscale molecule detection techniques.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;AlphaNano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A manufacturer of carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anson Nanotechnology Group&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nanoparticulate antibacterial dressings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Arry International Group Limited&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of a wide variety of nano materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano elements as as well as nano oxides (rare earth, metal, and non-metal).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing Chamgo Nano-Tech&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures antimicrobial fibers and plastics and nanocomposite materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Beijing HuiHaihong Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is mainly engaged in the application research of nanometer-structured material, R&amp;amp;D of new products, technology transfer, technical consultation, technical service, production and management of the newly developed products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Alpha Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
A supplier of carbon nanotubes and various nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengdu Organic Chemistry Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chengyin Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;China Rare Metal Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
CRM offers a wide range of nanoparticulate specialist metals, oxides, alloys and inorganic chemical compounds.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Chongyi Zhangyuan Tungsten Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of tungsten and tungsten carbide nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;EnvironmentalCare&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures nano-TiO2 catalytic surface coating materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;FCC&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces 6 series of more than 20 different items bentonite refined products,including NANOLIN series of nanoclay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Futuresoft Technologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Futuresoft Technologies Inc. is specialized in technologies in plastic materials, their processing equipment and processed products. FTI offers turn-key production systems of wood-plastic composite, extruders, and dies, especially profile dies for wood-plastic, PVC, and TPE. Their polymer nanocomposite technology has been able to make the composite to have much higher property enhancement than those by other technology.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeFei Kaier Nanometer Technology Development Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Specializes in nitride and carbide series of nanoparticle ceramic powders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;HeJi, Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Huizhou TianYi Rare Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufacturer of nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jiangsu Changtai Nanometer Material Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Jinri Diamond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company produces diamond abrasives. Among its products are nanodiamond materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;NaBond&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Focused on development, manufacture and application of nanomaterials and adhesives.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Nano-Group Holdings&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Provides nanotechnology applications for the textile and garment industries.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
SMIC is one of the leading semiconductor foundries in the world and the largest and most advanced foundry in Mainland China, providing integrated circuit manufacturing service at 0.35 micron to 65 nanometer and finer line technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai ADD Nano-ST&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Manufactures PTFE nanopowders for printing, dyeing, and cosmetic applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;ShangHai Allrun Nano Science &amp;amp; Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Allrun Nano&#039;s technologies consist of distinct nanomaterial manufacturing processes, surface treatment technologies of nanomaterial, and its bio-medical application technologies. Allrun Nano has created an integrated platform of nanomaterial technologies that are designed to deliver nanomaterial solutions for market applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Huzheng Nano Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of wide range of nanoparticles, coating supplements and finishing agents.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shanghai Shanghui Nano Science and Technology&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, production and distribution of high-tech industrial products of nanomaterials. In possession of its own centre of R&amp;amp;D and integrating production with industrialization, the company cooperates with colleges and scientific institutions with regard to the projects of nanomaterials and technologies.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzen Nano-Technologies Port Co., Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Producer of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen JinGangYuan New Material Development&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company specializes in developing and manufacturing nanodiamond and other related products.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Junye Nano Material Co.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces metal nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Shenzhen Nanotechnologies&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company is focusing on the R&amp;amp;D, manufacture and application of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sokang Nano&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Develops several lines of nanotech product including nano coating, nano coating additive, nano air cleaner module and nano water cleaning module.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sumi Long Nanotechnology Materials&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Site in Chinese) A subsidiary of Sumitomo Osaka Cement, the company develops and manufactures antimagnetic, anti-reflection coatings with nanoparticles.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Sun Nanotech Co, Ltd.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Supplier of carbon nanotubes.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Texnology Nano Textile&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Applies nanocoatings to textile fibers and materials.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TiPE&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
TiPE is a leading nano photocatalyst manufacturer in China, with its proprietary advanced Nano-hydrosynthetic™ technology. TiPE also is the biggest hydrosynthetic photocatalyst manufacturer in China.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;TitanPE Technology (Shanghai) Inc.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Produces nano photocatalysts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Yantai Jialong Nano Industry&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
The company conducts research and development of nanomaterials. It is the 863 Program Industrialization Base, Shandong Nanocoating Engineering &amp;amp; technology Research Center and Yantai Nano Engineering &amp;amp; Technology Research Center.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zhejiang Fenghong Clay Chemicals&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
Engages in research, development, manufacture and trade of refined clay related products such as organoclay rheological additives ornanoclay for polymers.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Zibo ShineSo Chemical New Material&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
ShineSo specializes in the R&amp;amp;D, manufacturing distribution and technical service of advanced ceramic materials including nanopowders.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I følge pintprice.com er det store geografiske variasjoner i ølprisene i Kina; fra under 2 kr i Changchun til over 40 kr i Shanghai. I Beijing er prisen ca 10 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Japan=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Pintprice.com hevder at snittprisen på en øl i Japan er 35 kr. I hovedstaden Tokyo er prisen opp mot 50-lappen. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=Singapore og Malaysia=&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Drillo-fakta===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Nanoteknologi-bedrifter===  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Økonomi===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
En øl kan fås til 20 kr i Singapore i følge pintprice.com, men man må regne med minst det dobbelte mange steder. Snittprisen i Malaysia  er 37 kr. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attraksjoner=== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Universiteter med samarbeidsavtaler med NTNU===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Annet===&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2161</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2161"/>
		<updated>2009-03-17T21:49:45Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring kinetics of folding */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Scanning optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in Figure &amp;quot;Microparticle and cell sorting&amp;quot;.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in Figure &amp;quot;Measurement on DNA transcription&amp;quot;. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See Figures &amp;quot;Strand length vs. time&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&amp;quot;.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2160</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2160"/>
		<updated>2009-03-17T21:49:03Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring kinetics of folding */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Scanning optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in Figure &amp;quot;Microparticle and cell sorting&amp;quot;.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in Figure &amp;quot;Measurement on DNA transcription&amp;quot;. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See Figure &amp;quot;Strand length vs. time&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&amp;quot;.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2159</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2159"/>
		<updated>2009-03-17T21:47:23Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Scanning optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in Figure &amp;quot;Microparticle and cell sorting&amp;quot;.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in Figure &amp;quot;Measurement on DNA transcription&amp;quot;. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2158</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2158"/>
		<updated>2009-03-17T21:44:08Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Scanning optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in Figure &amp;quot;Microparticle and cell sorting&amp;quot;.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2157</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2157"/>
		<updated>2009-03-17T21:42:48Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Microparticle and cell sorting */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in Figure &amp;quot;Microparticle and cell sorting&amp;quot;.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2156</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2156"/>
		<updated>2009-03-17T21:42:16Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Microparticle and cell sorting */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the Figure Microparticle and cell sorting.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2085</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2085"/>
		<updated>2009-03-16T20:19:18Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Optical actuation of micromachines */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Layout problems with Internet Explorer. For optimal viewing, please use a different browser.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2084</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2084"/>
		<updated>2009-03-16T20:18:34Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Layout problems with Internet Explorer. For optimal viewing, please use a different browser.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|right|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2083</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2083"/>
		<updated>2009-03-16T20:18:06Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
(Layout problems with Internet Explorer. For optimal viewing, please use a different browser.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|right|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|left|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2073</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2073"/>
		<updated>2009-03-16T09:14:42Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring kinetics of folding */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would make sudden jumps back and forth between the folded and the unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2072</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2072"/>
		<updated>2009-03-16T09:11:53Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring kinetics of folding */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in this way 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2071</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2071"/>
		<updated>2009-03-16T09:10:33Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion are interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2048</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2048"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T15:37:34Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|281px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|262px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2047</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2047"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T15:34:38Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|280px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2045</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2045"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T15:29:24Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|290px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2043</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2043"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T15:26:21Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Use of handles in and calibration of optical tweezers */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|300px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2042</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2042"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T15:25:12Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;pielage&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|300px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles in and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2038</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2038"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T15:18:43Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Optical actuation of micromachines */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relatively simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris. (Source: http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/).]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively focusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuously. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continuously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a computer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favourable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. (Date of publication). Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitrary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangements of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangement of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impractical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the previous subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a conveyor belt. The role of the optical switch is then simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient stretching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the fluorescence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|150px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically exerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional lithography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precisely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|300px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to each other in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved independently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to each other by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be achieved by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a build-up of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles in and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example long strands of biopolymers such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractive abilities to be stably trapped by an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to large refractiveness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, measurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscosity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixed to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the focus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintain the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement, the enzyme&#039;s movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achievable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuity in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density function is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy difference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2003</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=2003"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T13:30:07Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Structure fabrication and assembly */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentrum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relativiely simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris. (Source: http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/).]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively foucusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuosly. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a cumputer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favorable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. (Date of publication). Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangments of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangment of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impracical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the prevoius subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a coveyer belt. The role of the optical switch is then is simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient streching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the flouresence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically excerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional litography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precicely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|300px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to eachother in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the same single optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved indepentently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to eachother by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be acheived by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a buildup of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to do organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles in and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example of long strands of biopolymer such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractile abillities to be stably trapped due to an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to lagre refictileness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, mesurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscocity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixied to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figiure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the foucus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintan the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement is, the ezymes movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achieveable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applyied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuety in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density fuction is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy defference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=1998</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=1998"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T13:20:17Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentrum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relativiely simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris. (Source: http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/).]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively foucusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuosly. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a cumputer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favorable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. (Date of publication). Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangments of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangment of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impracical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the prevoius subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a coveyer belt. The role of the optical switch is then is simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient streching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the flouresence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way analogous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically excerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditional litography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precicely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. Also as discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|300px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to eachother in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved indepentently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to eachother by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be acheived by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a buildup of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles in and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example of long strands of biopolymer such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractile abillities to be stably trapped due to an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to lagre refictileness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, mesurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscocity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|250px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixied to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figiure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the foucus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintan the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement is, the ezymes movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achieveable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applyied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuety in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density fuction is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy defference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=1990</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=1990"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T13:10:02Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring kinetics of folding */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentrum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relativiely simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris. (Source: http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/).]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively foucusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuosly. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a cumputer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favorable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. (Date of publication). Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangments of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangment of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impracical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the prevoius subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a coveyer belt. The role of the optical switch is then is simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, but it can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient streching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particles that are to be part of the collection, as shown in the figure to the right and below. Also, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the flouresence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way anagolous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically excerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|300px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditionally litography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precicely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. As discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to eachother in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved indepentently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to eachother by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be acheived by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a buildup of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles in and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example of long strands of biopolymer such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractile abillities to be stably trapped due to an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to lagre refictileness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, mesurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscocity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|300px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixied to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figiure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the foucus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintan the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement is, the ezymes movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achieveable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applyied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuety in the force vs. extension curve. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not too far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density fuction is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy defference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=1987</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=1987"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T13:06:59Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentrum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relativiely simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris. (Source: http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/).]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively foucusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuosly. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a cumputer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favorable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. (Date of publication). Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangments of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangment of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impracical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the prevoius subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a coveyer belt. The role of the optical switch is then is simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, as shown in the figure to the right and below. It can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient streching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particels that are to be part of the collection. Or, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the flouresence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way anagolous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically excerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|300px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditionally litography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precicely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. As discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to eachother in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved indepentently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to eachother by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be acheived by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a buildup of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles in and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example of long strands of biopolymer such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractile abillities to be stably trapped due to an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to lagre refictileness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, mesurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscocity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|300px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixied to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figiure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the foucus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintan the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement is, the ezymes movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achieveable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applyied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuety in the force vs. extension. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not to far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density fuction is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy defference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=1984</id>
		<title>Optical tweezers</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="http://nanowiki.no/index.php?title=Optical_tweezers&amp;diff=1984"/>
		<updated>2009-03-14T13:00:40Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Magnugje: /* Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;(This page is the product of the literature project in TFY4335.)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer is a device using a focused laser beam to apply forces to microscopic objects, and this can be used for control and measurements in a large variety of applications. The manipulated objects can range from nanometer scale to micrometer scale, and the forces range from femtonewtons to nanonewtons.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Neuman KC, Block SM, &amp;quot;Optical trapping&amp;quot;, Review of Scientific Instruments (2004); 75(9): 2787-2809.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Optical trapping of particles as small as 20-30nm has been demonstrated.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Svoboda, K. and Blocks S.M. Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Opt. Lett 19, 930-932 (1994).&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;  This article will both explain the physical principles behind behind the technique, as well as mention several of its applications. Optical tweezers are part of the [[TFY4335 - Bionanovitenskap]] curriculum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Physical principles ==&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_ray_optics.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Ray optics explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039; &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is displaced from the focal point, and will refract more light to one side than the other. It will then experience a net force along the intensity gradient. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; The particle is centered on the focal point, and will refract an equal amount of light to both sides. It is now in an equilibrium at the focal point, and experiences no net force. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Wikimedia Commons)]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:ot_dipole.jpg|right|thumb|350px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Induced dipole explanation of the gradient force:&#039;&#039;&#039;  At this moment in time, the gradient causes the force pulling the positive part to the left to be greater than the force pulling the negative part to the right, causing a net force to the left towards the focal point. At a later point in time, when the field and dipole has changed directions, the same consideration will still give a net force towards the focal point. &lt;br /&gt;
(Source: Screenshot from Java applet. PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado (2008)[Software]. Available from [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications].) ]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An optical tweezer works by trapping a particle in the focal point of a focused laser beam. Although all the forces working to keep the particle trapped come from the same physical principles, the theory is usually explained by decomposing the forces into two separate effects. These are often called the scattering force and the gradient force. While these models give a qualitative understanding of the principles, the exact quantitative theoretical calculations can be so complex in practice that they cannot replace direct calibration of the equipment. Much effort has gone into the exact computation of optical forces, but quantitative agreements with experiments have generally been hard to obtain, with the exception of large particles.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;metallicrayleigh&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Scattering force===&lt;br /&gt;
The component from the scattering force is the simplest one to explain and understand. This force pushes the particle away from the source and, assuming the gradient force is of similar magnitude, skews the equilibrium position of the trapped particle slightly down-stream from the exact focal point of the laser. The force originates in the transfer of momentrum from absorbed and symmetrically back scattered photons. The exact explanations for this force are relatively similar for all particle sizes, and will not be shown in detail here. With unfocused lasers, where there is no significant intensity gradient, this component of the force dominates the entire overall force.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gradient force===&lt;br /&gt;
When the beam at some point has a large intensity gradient, produced by a well focused laser through a lens with well corrected aberrations and a high numerical aperture, another component of the force becomes significant. This is the component which keeps the trapped particle laterally stable, as well as working against the scattering force, by always pulling it towards the center. To obtain a stable trap this gradient force must be large enough to prevent the scattering force from removing the particle from the focal point.&lt;br /&gt;
In general the gradient force is within a small range proportional to the displacement from the center, and therefore acts similarly to an ideal spring obeying Hooke&#039;s Law. If one seeks a relativiely simple explanation for the origins of this force, we can once again split the problem into two cases, now depending on the particle size. While this seems convenient, most object that are interesting for trapping are unfortunately in the intermediate size range between these two areas, where the physical explanations are much more complex.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Grier, D. G. (2003). A Revolution in Optical Manipulation. Nature, 424, 810-816.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====The ray optics model (d &amp;gt;&amp;gt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much larger than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by ray optics. The light gets refracted by the particle, which is acting like a lens, and continues on in a different direction. Since photons have a momentum, this change in direction corresponds to a change in the momentum of the light, which through conservation of momentum and Newton&#039;s laws give rise to a force on the particle. If the particle is in the exact center of the focal point, the intensities are symmetrical, the forces cancel each other out, and the gradient force will give no lateral motion.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle is positioned slightly to one side of the focal point, it will experience an asymmetrical intensity gradient and the light refracted on one side will have a higher intensity than the light refracted on the other side. Since the rate of momentum change, and hence the force, is proportional to the light intensity, the particle will experience a net force in the direction of the intensity gradient. This direction of the force is assuming that the particle has a greater index of refraction than the surrounding medium. If the opposite is true, the force will be directed in the opposite direction of the gradient.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the ray optics model, readers should experiment with the [http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
====Dipole model (d &amp;lt;&amp;lt; wavelength)====&lt;br /&gt;
When the trapped particle is much smaller than the wavelength of light, the gradient force is best explained by seeing the particle as a small induced dipole in an inhomogeneous electrical field. While the dielectric particle alone is not a dipole, the time-varying electrical field from the laser will induce a fluctuating dipole. Since there is a strong gradient present in the electrical field, the dipole will be pulled along this gradient towards the focal point. Through this model the gradient force can be expressed quantitatively as&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{grad} = \frac{2\pi \alpha}{cn_m^2}\nabla I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;c&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the speed of light in vacuum, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;n_m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the index of refraction of the medium, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;I_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the intensity of the incident light, and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the polarizability of the sphere expressed by&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\alpha=n_m^2a^3\frac{m^2-1}{m^2+2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
where &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;a&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the radius of the sphere and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;m&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; is the ratio of the index of refraction of the particle to the index of refraction of the medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For a greater qualitative understanding of the dipole model, readers should experiment with the [http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet] given here or in the links section of this article.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Applications ==&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can provide a powerful macroscale interface with the world on a nanoscale. This section presents some of it&#039;s important and less important applications.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Manipulation ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Dynamic position control and optical trap arrays ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:ot_tetris.gif|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Tetris:&#039;&#039;&#039; A scanning beam optical tweezer used to control the position of 42 glass microspheres of 1μm diameter in a 25μm x 20μm area under a microscope in a game of tetris. (Source: http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/).]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single beam tweezer can be used to trap a single particle near it&#039;s focal point. In this subsection, methods by which it is possible to control the relative positions, in three dimensions, of a number of particles through a dynamic array of optical traps are described. The array can be set up in several ways. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Time shared optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; use a scanning laser consecutively foucusing on each one of several trapping points for a very short period of time. If the beam is scanned over the desired pattern at a frequency greated than that associated with Brownian time scales, the particles within the array will find themselves confined to one of these points even though it is not lit at them continuosly. In order to achieve this rapid scanning of the beam, acousto optic deflectors (AODs) or piezoelectric mirrors can be used.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Microfluidic control using colloidal devices. Science 296, 1841-1844 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Holographic optical tweezers&#039;&#039;&#039; (HOTs) split the single laser beam into several continously lit and dynamic traps. The traps are discrete light intensity maxima in the focal plane of the setup. In order to create these maxima, the wavefront of a single laser beam is sculpted in the back aperture through a cumputer generated hologram in a spatial light modulator (SLM). The focal plane represents the reciprocal space with respect to the back focal plane. Thus calculating the holograms necessary to fix and move particles in a desired way, requires knowledge of the inverse Fourier transform of the trap positions. This can be achieved through application computer algorithms such as the iterative Gerchberg-Saxton or the direct binary search algorithm. Hologram calculation can be done in advance or in real-time relative to particle movement execution.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Chapin, Stephen C., Germain, Vincent and Dufresne, Eric R. (2006) Automated trapping, assembly and sorting with holographic optical tweezers. Optics express, 14, 26, 13095-13100.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G. et. al. (2004). Interactive Application in holographic optical tweezers og multi-plane Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm for three-dimensional light shaping. Optics Express, 12, 8, 1665-1670.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both techniques can be used for high precision, independent control of microparticle positions. For the scanning laser tweezer these favorable characteristics were demonstrated by Theodoor Pielage, Bram van den Broek and Joost van Mameren when they used 42 glass microspheres to create a tetris game.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Pielage, T., van den Broek, B. and van Mameren, J. (Date of publication). Real-life μ-Tetris. 31.01.2009, from http://www.nat.vu.nl/~joost/tetris/&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; Follow link for video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s]. The scanning technique can also be used for dynamic assembly and actuation of microscopic mechanical devices, as demonstrated by Terray et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Structure fabrication and assembly ====&lt;br /&gt;
The previous subsection described how an array of optical traps can be produced and that these traps can be individually moved about in three dimensions. Here it is outlined how such an arrangement can be used to arrange and fix particles in an arbitary structure and how structures can be made through optically induced photopolymerization. The assembly process will be discussed in terms of holographic optical tweezers as used by Sinclair et al. and by Chapin et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Sinclair, G., Jordan, P., Courtail, M. P., Cooper, J. and Laczik, Z. J. (2004) Assemply of 3-dimensional structures using programmable holographic optical tweezers. Optics Express, 12, 22, 5475-5480.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; In principle, however, other techniques, like time shared tweezers, may be used.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For relatively simple and planar arrangments of particles, a static hologram can be used. The hologram defines trap positions in the focal plane as described in the previous subsection and the whole arrangment of traps can be moved such as to trap particles in all foci.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:3d_assemby.png|left|thumb|500px|&#039;&#039;&#039;3D-assembly:&#039;&#039;&#039; Nine 2μm particles assembled using HOTs from a single line into three axially aligned triangles. The time taken for each stage of this process to be invoked is indicated in the top left corners of the images.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
For more complex and three dimensional structures, such a procedure is impossible or impracical. Especially in arrangements where traps are closely surrounded by other traps in many directions. Instead, one can use a fully automated procedure that only requires the input of final particle destinations. First, the process detects the arbitrary initial positions of the required particles. Then it calculates and applies holograms to trap the particles at these positions. Hologram calculation algorithms were mentioned in the prevoius subsection. Next, a path planning module derives the trajectories each particle must take in order to arrive at their prespecified positions. Finally, a sequence of holograms is obtained and applied.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Particles that are arranged in three dimensions using HOTs, can be permanently fixed. For example, this can be done by having the particles immersed in a gel solution which sets after a certain time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;sinclair_jordan&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:sculpture.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Photopolymerization:&#039;&#039;&#039; A sculpture made by photopolymerization with the help of optical tweezers. The finest features are in the order of 100nm across&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used to assemble permanent microstructures through photopolymerization. Photopolymerization refers to processes where a substance in solution polymerize into a solid structure when exposed to light. The intense illumination from the focal point in an optical tweezer is ideal for driving photochemical reactions, and the fact that the focal point can be moved in three dimensions with great precision makes it possible to create microscopic objects of arbitrary shape. Under the right conditions the technique can yield features smaller than the wavelength of light. The ability to fabricate and stitch together any kind of small structures can have great applications for microelectromechanical systems such as sensors and lab-on-a-chip technology.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Photopolymerization by optical tweezers has been demonstrated on many occasions. This includes the creation of microscopic rotors&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Galajda, P. and Ormos, P. Complex micromachines produced and driven by light. Appl.Phys.Lett. 78, 249-251 (2001)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and detailed three dimensional plastic sculptures.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microparticle and cell sorting ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cell_sorting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microparticle and cell sorting:&#039;&#039;&#039; Single cells or particles are aligned to flow along the vertical axis of the setup. Optical reconition in the analysis region determines which particles that are to be directed right or left by the optical swicth.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An example of a setup for microparticle and cell sorting, as used in an experiment by Wang et al, is shown in the figure to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This particular setup applies optical forces along with the laminar flow characteristics of a microfluidic system. A low Reynolds number environment makes fluid flow analogous to a coveyer belt. The role of the optical switch is then is simply to direct particles left or right, corresponding to waste and collection respectively, based on the judgement of the optical recognition stage. The switch may be implemented as an optically actuated mechanical one, as shown in the figure to the right and below. It can also be a right increasing light intensity gradient streching the full width of the channel that is turned on for target cells or particels that are to be part of the collection. Or, to allow for left or right direction of several particles at once, it is possible to utilise HOTs. It is possible for the optical recognition stage to identify a variety of particle or cell properties. For example, Wang et al. used such a setup to sort cells based on the flouresence of a protein&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wang&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wang, M. M. et al. (2004). Microfluidic sorting of mammalian cells by optical force switching. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 83-87.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; and Chapin et. al. demonstrated how microparticles can be sorted by size.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;chapin&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Optical actuation of micromachines====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bilde:rotor.jpg|left|thumb|200px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Microscopic rotor&#039;&#039;&#039; which was both created and drived by optical tweezers. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the rotor tumbling freely in solution. &#039;&#039;&#039;c)&#039;&#039;&#039; Illustration. &#039;&#039;&#039;d)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a trapped rotor, prevented from movement and rotation. &#039;&#039;&#039;e)&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of a rotor trapped in focus while being rotated by optical forces&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;.]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can not only be used for the assembly and fabrication of tiny mechanical devices, but have also shown great promise as actuators for such systems. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio, friction has been a large problem for micromechanical devices, and the need for precise and relatively strong forces are apparent. The optical tweezers can solve the problem of driving the devices by applying precise forces exactly where they are needed, in a very customizable and controllable manner. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
An interesting application is the assembly and actuation of tiny pumps and valves for use in microfluidics. Optical tweezers can both assemble, position and actuate multiple microscopic devices and particles inside microfluidic channels, while at the same time eliminating physical contact with the outside world. More details about these applications in microfluidics will follow in the next section.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Terray, A., Oakey, J. and Marr, D.W.M. Fabrication of linear colloidal structures for microfluidic applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1555-1557 (2002)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezer setups can even be used to apply torques around the beam axis instead of linear forces, creating a so called optical vortex. This is achieved by sending a laser beam with simple parallel wavefronts through a certain phase profile, transforming it into a helical phase profile where the photons carry an orbital angular momentum. A torque can also be achieved from the helical shape of the trapped object itself in a way anagolous to windmills, meaning that the light will deflect in certain directions causing momentum to be transferred to the object in a way that produces a torque around a rotational axis.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Both the above methods can be used to drive the rotational motion of different microdevices. As an example, a helical beam can be aimed and scaled to drive the teeth of a microscopic gear whose torque can then be transferred through a micromechanical system for other uses. These uses can be many things, from measuring the properties of structures like biopolymers to helping with the precise fabrication of nanotechnological tools through microelectromechanical systems. The principle of optically excerted torque has been demonstrated in practice by creating microscopic rotors, which were then rotated by use of an optical tweezers setup. The principle behind this torque was not the optical vortex, but simply shaping the rotor in a way that made the light deflect in certain directions. It was also demonstrated that this rotor could be set up to transfer its torque to microscopic gear wheels. This, combined with photopolymerization technique able to make microscopic objects of arbitrary shape, demonstrates the big possibilities in micromechanical devices brought by optical tweezers.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;galajda&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip ====&lt;br /&gt;
Many of the techniques and applications discussed above can provide a huge asset when developing microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip systems. Microfluidics are systems for precise control of manipulation of fluid at a micrometer scale, and lab-on-a-chip specifically refers to the scaling of the functions of a chemical laboratory down to this size range. This can be very useful in chemistry and biology for many reasons, including increased analysis speed and the extremely reduced need of sample quantities. &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of microspheres being moved like a 2D analogue of a screw pump by a scanning optical tweezer. The series of images show the tracer particle(1.5µm) being pumped progressively to the left. The spheres making up the pump have a size of 3µm, and the channel is 6µm wide. &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:pump2.jpg|left|thumb|260px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Pump in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the &amp;quot;dumbell&amp;quot; pump in different stages of rotation. The four 3µm microspheres making up the pump are moved independently by a scanning optical tweezer, one pair clockwise and the other pair counter-clockwise. The tracer particle is 1.5µm and the channel is 6µm wide.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:valves.jpg|center|thumb|300px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Valves in microfluidics:&#039;&#039;&#039; Image of the valves made from microspheres attached in a linear shape through photopolymerization. The size of the large sphere is 3µm, and the rest of the valve is around 1.5µm thick. &#039;&#039;&#039;a)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place while the passive valve automatically blocks the flow of particles to the right. &#039;&#039;&#039;b)&#039;&#039;&#039; When the flow goes to the left the passive valve opens up automatically. &#039;&#039;&#039;c/d)&#039;&#039;&#039; The large sphere is held in place by the wall with a tweezer while the active valve is actuated by the same tweezer to direct the flow of particles up or down.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Still there are many challenges in constructing a small and versatile lab-on-a-chip system. While traditionally litography is very effective for making the simple channels, further miniaturization has been halted by lack of techniques for fabrication of smaller valves, pumps and mixers. Actuation of these devices has also been a challenge, with the need of a quick, flexible and noninvasive solution. Earlier attempts at pumps and valves based on intricate systems of gears and cantilevers have so far failed to be implemented into microfluidics in a practical way. Optical tweezers can potentially solve many of these problems, with its ability to precicely and dynamically control large amounts of microparticles at the same time, and assemble them into needed devices like valves and pumps. As discussed earlier, particles or cells running through such a system can be sorted automatically, and the problem of mixing in laminar flow can be solved through microparticles spinning in an optical vortex or by using a microscopic rotor. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Terray et al. demonstrated various applications in microfluidics by showing that one can assemble, position and actuate microscopic pumps and valves made from silica microspheres all with one single optical tweezer. The valve was made of microspheres connected to eachother in rigid linear structures by use of photopolymerization. The structure was assembled inside the microfluidic system, where the solution needed for the laser to induce polymerization was present. The chain of particles was then transported to where it was needed, held in place, and sometimes actuated, all with the optical tweezer. Both passive and active valves were demonstrated, and it was shown that they could restrict and direct the flow of large particles while smaller particles and the fluid could pass. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Two kinds of active pumps were also demonstrated, which showed great ability to quickly control flow in both directions. These were also made from silica microspheres, but in this case they were all moved indepentently by a single beam in scanning mode instead of physically attached to eachother by photopolymerization. One pump was made from four microspheres in a widened cavity of a channel, which were divided in pairs into two &amp;quot;dumbells&amp;quot; rotating in opposite directions. The other was made by six microspheres arranged in a row, moved by a scanning tweezer like a two-dimensional analogue of the screw pump. All these valves and pumps can be seen in action in several videos available [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 here.]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is apparent that optical tweezers used in combination with colloidal spheres have a great potential in microfluidics. It eliminates physical contact with the outside world, while being able to dynamically assemble, position and actuate many needed mechanical devices all inside the system itself, and will allow for an integration density far beyond what was previously available. The use of computer controlled holographic or scanning methods together with a large amount of microspheres has a huge potential for making up highly flexible, complex and integrated systems for chemical analysis and medical diagnostics in the future.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;terray2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Cell surgery ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:cellsurgery.jpg|right|thumb|400px|&#039;&#039;&#039;Cell surgery:&#039;&#039;&#039; Microscope image and illustration of organelle extraction surgery on a yeast cell using a single optical tweezer. Femtosecond-pulses (mode-lock) is used for the first four seconds only, to dissect the cell wall. After 17 seconds continuous-wave mode was used to trap and extract a single organelle (black arrow) from within the cell.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Ando, J., Bautista, G., Smith, N., Fujita, K., Daria, VR., Optical trapping and surgery of living yeast cells using a single laser. Review of scientific instruments (2008) 79, 103705&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
By inducing photo-oxidation of biological materials with an optical tweezer setup, one can make a precise optical scalpel useful for surgery in single living cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;grier&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; This has already been used in the process of human assisted reproduction, by using a laser to cut through glycoprotein membranes. This has an advantage over the conventional method, which uses an acidic medium and can potentially harm neighbouring cells.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;wright&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Wright, G., Tucker, M.J., Morton, P.C., Sweitzer-Yoder, C.L and Smith, S.E., Micromanipulation in assisted reproduction: A review of current technology. Curr.Opin.Obstet.Gyn. 10, 221-226 (1998)&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Optical tweezers can also be used for intracellular organelle extraction. The process of trapping and controlling the cell, and the process of dissecting cell walls and cell membranes can both be acheived by use of a single laser. This is done by switching between two different operation modes of the laser. For the noninvasive trapping and manipulation, a continuous-wave mode is used. When the light is in the near-infrared part of the spectrum, cell damage is avoided while still maintaining a high enough gradient force to trap the cell. In this mode a cell can be trapped for hours with no effect on the cell viability. However, when switching to a mode-lock femtosecond-pulsed mode, the cell wall or membrane can be dissected in just a few seconds. The damage is not a product of thermal accumulation, because the deposited energy is still low. Instead the ultrashort laser pulses introduce nonlinear absorption and photochemical effects causing a buildup of structural changes. The fact that a cell can be dissected in such a short amount of time just by changing the operation mode implies a great potential for controlled and precise cell surgery using only a single optical tweezer.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In 2008, Ando et al.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;ando&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; demonstrated the optical trapping and surgery of a living yeast cell using a single laser. They not only dissected the outer cell wall, but by alternating between the two laser modes they trapped and extracted a single organelle from inside the cell through the opening. Yeast cells are often treated as model organisms of eukaryotic cells, so the ability to organelle analysis like this can be very useful for the investigation of organelle malfunctions causing human disease.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Measurement ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Use of handles in and calibration of optical tweezers ====&lt;br /&gt;
In order to conduct measurements on for example of long strands of biopolymer such as DNA and RNA, so-called handles are being used. Biological macromolecules may have insufficient refractile abillities to be stably trapped due to an optical force. Handles, however, are microspheres of polystyrene or silica that due to lagre refictileness are subject to a strong force in an optical trap. If one end of, for example a DNA molecule, is chemically attached to a handle and the other is fixed or attached to another handle, mesurements on the properties of the DNA molecules can be made.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Sovaboda, K. and Block, S. M. (1994). Biological Applications of Optical Forces. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structures, 23, 247-285.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Usually, an optical tweezer is modelled as a spring in which particle displacement from the focus is proportional to the restoring force exerted. In such a model, the particle is subject to a harmonic potential. Calibration usually involves determining the equivalent spring constant &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; of the trap. This can be done, for example, by the equipartition theorem as follows.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2}k_BT = \frac{1}{2}k\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By measuring the variance in position of a trapped particle &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x^2 \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and temperature &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;T&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;, the above equation can be solved for &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. Adjusting this parameter can be done by varying the overall intensity or intensity gradient of the trapping laser.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; Another calibration methods involves measuring the mean displacement &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\langle x \rangle&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; from the focus point caused by a viscous drag force. The drag force can be created by moving the sample stage at a known and constant velocity &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;v_{drift}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; while holding a trapped particle stationary. Since the trapped particle is stationary, the viscous drag force and the optical trapping force must cancel and  for a spherical particle we have the following equation.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k \langle x \rangle = v_{drift}6 \pi \eta R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If the particle radius &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and solution viscocity is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\eta&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; also is known, &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;k&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; can be calculated.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring transcription by RNA polymerase and behaviour of biological motors ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:dna_transcription.jpg|thumb|300px|right| &#039;&#039;&#039;Measurement on DNA transcription:&#039;&#039;&#039; An RNA polymerase enzyme is fixed to a bead that is optically trapped. As the DNA strand is transcribed, the stage moves in order to hold the bead in a fixed position relative to the trap. The movement of the enzyme along the strand can then be found from the movement of the stage.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;neuman&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A single RNA polymerase enzyme can be chemically fixied to an optical handle and make a transcript of a DNA-molecule attached to a moveable stage, as shown in the figiure to the right. The bead is held at a constant distance from the foucus of the optical trap and is thus able to exert a constant force suspending the DNA strand. As the enzyme transcribes the DNA, it moves along the strand. The stage to which the DNA molecule is fixed is then moved about by piezoelectrics such as to maintan the position of the particle within the trap. From recordings of this movement is, the ezymes movement along the strand can be deduced. Such an experiment was performed by Neuman et al. in 2003. They sought to explain why periods of constant RNA polymerase motion is interrupted by frequent pauses.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Neuman. K. C. et al. (2003). Ubiquitous Transcriptional Pausing Is Independent of RNA Polymerase Backtracking. Cell, 115(4), 437-447.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Using a similar setup, it is achieveable to measure the motion of biological motors moving along a strand in general. Information that can be obtained from these kinds of experiments are for example, if the motor moves constantly or in steps, what the size of the steps might be and how much force the motor is able to exert. Also, it is possible to measure if there is any dependence of ATP concentration in solution on this motion and and what this relationship might be.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Measuring kinetics of folding ====&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_jumping.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Strand length vs. time&#039;&#039;&#039; recordings for different applied forces.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:rna_folding_probability_fit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&#039;&#039;&#039;Fraction of time spent in the unfolded state vs. applied force&#039;&#039;&#039; with probability density function. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;F_{1/2}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; refers to the force at which the RNA strand is in the folded and unfolded states for an equal amount of time.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
By attaching a folded molecule of DNA or RNA molecule to a handle, the biopolymer can be unfolded through application of a mechanical force in an optical tweeer setup. Using a similar setup, Liphardt, Onoa, Smith, Tinoco and Bustamante, unfolded RNA molecules in 2001. They applyied a gradually increasing force to the strand and found that at a certain force &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, there was a clearly defined discontinuety in the force vs. extension. They concluded that this was due to the sudden unfolding of the strand. Also, holding the force constant and not to far from &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f = 14.5&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;pN, the strand would hop from folded state to unfolded state and spend a certain total and force dependent time in each state. Subsequently, they made recordings of strand length &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; vs. time for different applied forces. A force vs. fraction of time spent in the folded state plot was also made. See figures to the right.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;liphardt&amp;quot;&amp;gt;Liphardt, J. et al. (2001). Reversible Unfolding of Single RNA Molecules by Mechanical Force. Science, 292(5517), 733-737.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; To this, a force dependent probability density function for the fraction of time spent in the unfolded state could be fitted. The form of the density fuction is given below.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Nelson, P. (2008). Biological Physics. New York: W. H. Freeman and Comany.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;P(f) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{- (\Delta F_0 - f \Delta z)/k_B T}}&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Knowing &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;f&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta z&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; in the above equation, it is possible to calculate the free energy defference associated with the folding &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\Delta F_0&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt;. By considering the number of times the strand makes the jump from folded to unfolded state and the other way around, rate constants for given applied forces can be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://glass.phys.uniroma1.it/dileonardo/Applet.php?applet=TrapForcesApplet Java applet demonstrating the ray optics model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Optical_Tweezers_and_Applications Java applet demonstrating the dipole model of the gradient force]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCdnBmQZ6_s Video demonstration of Real-life μ-Tetris]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/296/5574/1841/DC1 Videos of microfluidic valves and pumps assembled and actuated by optical tweezers]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references/&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategori:Prosjekt i Bionanovitenskap]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Magnugje</name></author>
	</entry>
</feed>